Compendium Of Jainism

This comprehensive summary is based on the provided text, "Compendium of Jainism" by T. K. Tukol and A. N. Upadhye.

Overview

"Compendium of Jainism" by T. K. Tukol, with a Foreword by the late Dr. A. N. Upadhye, published by Prasaranga, Karnatak University, Dharwad in 1980, aims to provide a systematic treatise on Jainism. The book covers a vast range of topics, from the religion's antiquity and core tenets to its ethical framework and relevance in modern thought. The author, Justice T. K. Tukol, is lauded for his blend of scholarly depth, legal acumen, and profound understanding of Jain philosophy.

Key Themes and Content:

1. Jainism and its Antiquity:

   • Jainism is presented as an ancient religion, predating Buddhism and having its roots in the pre-Aryan period of Indian civilization.
   • Evidence from archaeological findings at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, Vedic and Purāṇic literature, and ancient inscriptions is cited to support its antiquity.
   • Jainism is distinguished from Hinduism and Buddhism, highlighting its unique philosophical concepts, rejection of Vedic authority and rituals, and its emphasis on Ahimsā, Anekāntavāda, and Aparigraha.

2. The Tirthankaras and Lord Mahāvīra:

   • The compendium details the concept of Tirthankaras as spiritual teachers who guide humanity across the cycle of time.
   • It highlights the first Tirthankara, Rishabha Deva, and the last, Lord Mahāvīra, providing biographical sketches and their contributions.
   • The historicity of Tirthankaras like Neminatha and Pārśvanātha is discussed, establishing Jainism's historical depth beyond Mahāvīra.
   • Lord Mahāvīra's life, teachings, his formulation of the four vows, and the establishment of the Sangha (community of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen) are explained.

3. After Mahāvīra and the Schism:

   • The period following Mahāvīra's Nirvana is discussed, including the succession of spiritual leaders (Ganadharas).
   • The text addresses the gradual divergence and eventual schism between the Digambara ("sky-clad" or naked) and Śvetāmbara ("white-clad") sects, attributing it primarily to differences in monastic discipline and interpretation of scriptures rather than fundamental doctrinal differences.
   • Various sub-sects within both Digambara (Terāhapantha, Bisapantha, Tāraṇapantha) and Śvetāmbara (Murtipujaka, Sthanakavāsi, Terapanthi) traditions are briefly outlined.
   • The historical context of the migration of Bhadrabāhu and Chandragupta Maurya to the South is presented as a significant event in Jain history.

4. Concept of God and of Worship:

   • Jainism is clarified as not being atheistic in the conventional sense. It rejects the concept of a personal God as a creator and ruler of the universe.
   • Instead, Jainism views God as a liberated soul (Arhat or Siddha) who has attained infinite knowledge, bliss, and power inherent in every soul.
   • Worship in Jainism is directed towards these perfected souls (Tirthankaras) as ideals to emulate, not to seek favors or divine grace.
   • The five supreme beings (Pañca-parameşthis: Arhats, Siddhas, Ācāryas, Upādhyāyas, and Sādhus) are revered through prayer and meditation, focusing on their virtues.
   • The concept of Yakṣas and Yakṣiņis in Jain temples is explained as a concession to popular sentiments and a means to attract followers.

5. The Universe:

   • Jaina cosmology describes the universe as eternal, uncreated, and composed of six fundamental substances (dravyas): Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter), Dharma (medium of motion), Adharma (medium of rest), Akāśa (space), and Kāla (time).
   • The universe is explained as dynamic and ever-changing, subject to cycles of integration and dissolution.
   • The structure of the universe (Loka and Aloka) is detailed, including the concept of space-points (pradeśas) and the abode of liberated souls (Siddha-śilā).
   • The text touches upon Jaina astronomy and mathematics, highlighting their sophisticated understanding for their time.

6. Jiva or the Theory of Soul:

   • The soul (Jiva) is described as an eternal, uncreated substance characterized by consciousness.
   • The soul is distinct from the body, mind, and senses, which are material.
   • Jainism categorizes souls based on the number of senses they possess, their mental faculties, and their state of existence (mundane or liberated).
   • The text delves into the Jaina theory of knowledge (Jñāna and Darśana), classifying different types of direct and indirect knowledge, including clairvoyance (Avadhi) and telepathy (Manah-paryāya).
   • False knowledge (Ajñāna) is also discussed, emphasizing the importance of right faith and knowledge for spiritual progress.

7. The Doctrine of Karma:

   • Karma is central to Jainism, explaining the cycle of birth, death, happiness, and misery.
   • Karma is understood as a subtle, material substance (Pudgala) that adheres to the soul due to activities of the body, mind, and speech (Yoga), driven by passions (Kaşāyas).
   • The eight types of Karmas are categorized into four "ghātiya" (destructive) Karmas (obscuring knowledge, perception, bliss, and strength) and four "aghātiya" (non-destructive) Karmas (determining life-span, physical form, social status, and experiences of pleasure/pain).
   • The text details the causes for the influx of each type of Karma and emphasizes that Karma is not fatalism but a law of cause and effect, with individual responsibility for actions.

8. The Doctrine of Leśyā:

   • Leśyās are explained as transcendental "colors" or qualities that the soul acquires due to the types and intensity of Karmas it accumulates.
   • There are six Leśyās: black, blue, grey (inauspicious), and yellow, red, white (auspicious).
   • The doctrine illustrates how mental states and passions influence the soul's "aura" and karmic disposition, linking them to moral character.

9. The Seven Principles (Tattvas):

   • These are the fundamental realities that constitute Jain metaphysics: Jiva (soul), Ajiva (non-soul), Āśrava (influx of Karma), Bandha (bondage), Samvara (stoppage of influx), Nirjarā (shedding of Karma), and Moksha (liberation).
   • The book elaborates on Āśrava (causes of influx), Bandha (how Karma binds the soul), Samvara (means to stop influx through vows, restraints, etc.), and Nirjarā (processes of shedding accumulated Karma), leading towards Moksha.

10. The Nine Padārthas or Fundamental Truths:

    • These are the seven principles plus Punya (merit) and Pāpa (demerit/sin), which are considered the fruits of auspicious and inauspicious actions, respectively.
    • Punya and Pāpa are understood as Karmic matter that binds the soul, leading to different experiences in the cycle of rebirth.
    • The text emphasizes that both Punya and Pāpa bind the soul and that the ultimate goal is to transcend both through right knowledge, faith, and conduct.

11. Guna-Sthānas or Fourteen Stages in the Spiritual Evolution of Soul:

    • These stages represent the progressive spiritual journey of the soul from delusion (Mithyātva) to liberation (Siddhahood).
    • The stages are characterized by the varying states of Karma's influence (subsidence, destruction, etc.) and the consequent development of the soul's inherent qualities.
    • The progression through these stages involves the purification of mind, control of passions, and the cultivation of right faith, knowledge, and conduct.

12. Ratnatraya or The Three Jewels:

    • These are Right Faith (Samyak Darśana), Right Knowledge (Samyak Jñāna), and Right Conduct (Samyak Cāritra), which collectively form the path to liberation (Moksha Mārga).
    • The text explains the prerequisites for each Jewel, emphasizing freedom from superstitions, doubts, passions, pride, and the importance of scriptural study, contemplation, and ethical practices.

13. Jaina Ethics and Way of Life:

    • Jaina ethics is characterized as "Ethical Realism," emphasizing the harmony between individual duty and societal well-being.
    • The ethics are divided for householders (Śrāvaka-dharma) and ascetics (Muni-dharma), with the latter being more rigorous.
    • The core of Jaina ethics lies in the five Mahāvratas (great vows) for ascetics and five Aṇuvratas (small vows) for householders: Ahimsā, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacarya, and Aparigraha.
    • The text details these vows, their transgressions (aticāras), and their positive and negative aspects, highlighting Ahimsā as the foundational principle.
    • The Guṇavratas (virtue vows) and Śikşā-vratas (training vows) for householders are explained as supplementary practices to strengthen the observance of the basic vows and prepare for a higher spiritual life.

14. Ethics for Ascetics:

    • This chapter outlines the rigorous ethical code for ascetics (Muni or Yati), including the 28 Mūlaguņas (basic qualities).
    • The text details the Mahāvratas, the five Samitis (careful practices), three Guptis (restraints), and the six essential duties (āvaśyakas) that ascetics must observe.
    • The importance of controlling senses, conquering passions, and practicing austerities (external and internal) is stressed.
    • The concept of Sallekhanā (voluntary fasting unto death) is discussed in detail, differentiating it from suicide and highlighting its spiritual significance.

15. The Ten Supreme Virtues (Daśa-Dharma):

    • These virtues represent the highest ethical ideals for spiritual progress: Supreme Forbearance (Kşamā), Supreme Humility (Mārdava), Supreme Straightforwardness (Ārjava), Supreme Truthfulness (Satya), Supreme Purity (Sauca), Supreme Self-control (Samyama), Supreme Austerity (Tapas), Supreme Renunciation (Tyāga), Supreme Non-attachment (Akiñcanya), and Supreme Celibacy (Brahmacarya).
    • Each virtue is explained in its philosophical and practical context, emphasizing its role in controlling passions, purifying the mind, and advancing spiritual evolution.

16. Sallekhanā:

    • This voluntary practice of fasting unto death is presented as a dignified and spiritually significant way to end life, particularly for ascetics and advanced householders nearing their end.
    • It is distinguished from suicide by its voluntary nature, the absence of passions, the process of gradual detachment, and its spiritual purpose.

17. Pathway to Liberation:

    • Liberation (Moksha) is the ultimate goal, achieved through the destruction of all Karmas.
    • The pathway involves the practice of the Three Jewels (Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct) and rigorous austerities, penance, and meditation (Dhyāna).
    • The four types of Dhyāna are discussed, with Dharmya and Sukla Dhyāna being conducive to spiritual progress, culminating in Omniscience (Kevala Jñāna) and eventual liberation (Siddhahood).

18. Anekāntavāda-Syādvāda:

    • Anekāntavāda (non-absolutism) is the doctrine of manifold points of view, stating that reality is complex and can be understood from multiple perspectives.
    • Nayavāda provides the analytical framework for understanding different aspects of reality, while Syādvāda (the doctrine of conditional predication) offers a synthetical approach using seven modes of expression (Syāt asti, Syāt nāsti, etc.) to describe reality without contradiction.
    • This doctrine is presented as a foundation for intellectual tolerance, reconciliation of conflicting viewpoints, and a path to understanding the multifaceted nature of truth.

19. Relevance of Jainism to Modern Thought:

    • The book concludes by exploring the profound relevance of Jaina principles to contemporary issues like scientific advancement, political ideologies (communism vs. capitalism), social inequalities, war and peace, and the pursuit of materialism.
    • Jainism's emphasis on Ahimsā, Aparigraha, Satya, and self-control is highlighted as a potential solution to modern problems.
    • The text argues that the Jaina ethical framework, particularly the vows, can foster individual moral development, social harmony, and economic equality.
    • The universality of Jaina teachings, including the equality of all beings and the possibility of spiritual attainment regardless of background, is emphasized.
    • The author concludes that the ethical and spiritual values of Jainism are scientifically valid and offer a timeless path to peace, happiness, and self-realization.

Overall Purpose:

"Compendium of Jainism" serves as an accessible yet thorough introduction to the vast philosophical and ethical landscape of Jainism. It aims to clarify misconceptions, present the doctrines authentically, and demonstrate the enduring relevance of Jaina teachings for individual spiritual growth and societal well-being.