Chedsutra Ek Anushilan - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Chedsutra Ek Anushilan" by Dulahrajmuni, focusing on the concept of Chedsutras within the broader context of Jain Agamas:

Introduction to Jain Agamas and the Classification of Sutras:

The text begins by outlining the historical classification of Jain Agamas. Initially, Agamas were divided into "Anga" and "Purva." Later, Aryarakshita divided them into four "Anuyogas": Charankarananuyoga (conduct), Dharmanukathanuyoga (narratives of dharma), Ganitanuyoga (mathematics), and Dravyanuyoga (substance). During the compilation of Agamas, they were further categorized into "Angapravishta" (included in Angas) and "Angabahya" (outside Angas). The Nandi Sutra also classifies Agamas based on their recitation time: "Kalika" (recited in the first and last part of the day) and "Ulkhalika" (recited in all parts of the day).

The most prevalent current classification of Agamas includes four divisions: Anga, Upanga, Mula, and Ched.

The Significance of Chedsutras:

Jainism places immense importance on purity of conduct (achara shuddhi). The ethical guidelines are so meticulous that even unintentional transgressions, like harm or untruth in a dream, require expiation. While the Agamas generally describe virtuous conduct (sadhachara), the need for independent texts detailing specific rules and prohibitions arose over time. As societal conditions, time, and place (dravya, kshetra, kala) evolved, so did the interpretations and applications of these rules. This led to the development of alternative rules, known as "Apavadamarga" (path of exceptions).

Chedsutras are primarily focused on:

Codifying the varied codes of conduct for ascetics (sadhu).
Prescribing the "Apavadamarga" (exceptions) as needed.
Serving as the "constitution" for ascetic life.
Establishing penalties for transgressions due to negligence.
They can be called "punishment codes" in worldly language and "expiation texts" in spiritual language.

The term "Kappar" in Chedsutras signifies permissible conduct for a monk, while "No Kappar" denotes prohibited conduct. Similar disciplinary and expiatory discussions are found in the Vinaya Pitaka in Buddhism and in Sutra and Smriti texts in the Vedic tradition.

Importance and Authority of Chedsutras:

Among the Chedsutras, Nishitha is considered highly esteemed. The Vyavahar Bhashya extensively discusses the importance of Nishitha, asserting that the meaning of a sutra is more authoritative than the sutra itself. In this context, the meaning of Chedsutras is considered even more potent than the meaning of other Agamas because they are the basis for purification when faults or transgressions occur in conduct.

The Nishitha Churnika refers to Chedsutras as "Uttam Shrut" (supreme scripture) because they describe the methods of expiation, which leads to the purification of conduct.

Those knowledgeable in Chedsutras are called Shrutavyavahari. They have the authority to critique others. The interpretative texts of Chedsutras also hold significant importance. A Shrutavyavahari is someone who understands the Artha (meaning) of the Niyukti (commentaries) of Brihatkalpa and Vyavahara.

Secrecy and Transmission of Chedsutras:

Chedsutras are considered "Rahasya Sutra" (secret sutras), similar to texts like Yoniprabhruta, and their transmission was restricted. Their recitation was not given to everyone. The Nishitha Bhashya and Churni explicitly state that these texts should not be recited in the presence of young, ignorant, or uninitiated monks (Mriga). However, to prevent the disintegration of the teachings, recitation could be given to unworthy individuals based on factors like substance, place, and time.

According to the Panchakalpa Bhashya, the recitation of Chedsutras was exclusively for "Parinamaka" disciples (those who could comprehend and internalize the teachings), not for "Atiparinamaka" (those who excessively try to understand) or "Aparinamaka" (those unable to understand). Imparting these texts to the latter would be like spoiling milk in an unbaked or acidic pot. In a monastic community with many Gitartha (fully enlightened monks), the recitation of Chedsutras was done in seclusion or Naishedhiki (a specific time or place for private recitation) to prevent the Agitartha monks from misinterpreting and leaving the community.

Authorship of Chedsutras:

Chedsutras are considered to have originated from the Purvas (ancient scriptures). The four main Chedsutras – Dashashrutaskandha, Brihatkalpa, Vyavahara, and Nishitha – are believed to have been derived from the third section of the "Pratyakhyana Purva."

Dashashrutaskandha, Kalpa, and Vyavahara: These are widely attributed to Bhadravahu.
Nishitha: There is no scholarly consensus on its authorship. Some scholars attribute it to Bhadravahu, but this is considered illogical. Reasons cited include:
- The Niyukti and Panchakalpa Bhashya venerate Bhadravahu as the author of Dashashrutaskandha, Kalpa, and Vyavahara but do not mention Nishitha.
- When discussing the time limit for studying Agamas, Dashashrutaskandha, Vyavahara, and Kalpa are mentioned together, but Nishitha is listed separately.
- The Bhashyakara defines a Shrutavyavahari as one who knows Kalpa and Vyavahara, not Nishitha.
- Many verses praising Nishitha in the Vyavahara Bhashya appear to be later additions, suggesting Nishitha gained prominence later.
- The mention of Bhadravahu as the author of Nishitha is only found in the Panchakalpa Churnika, possibly due to its derivation from the Pratyakhyana Purva, like other Ched texts.
- Winternitz considers Nishitha to be a later compilation.
- Some scholars suggest Visakhagani, a contemporary of Bhadravahu, as its author.

A question arises about Dashashrutaskandha, as it contains the life of Mahavira and the Sthaviravali, and how it can be considered derived from the Purvas. It's possible that some portions were added later.

Reasons for the "Niryuhana" (Compilation/Derivation) of Sutras:

The Bhashya literature extensively discusses why these sutras were compiled. The ninth Purva was as vast as the ocean and required continuous reflection to prevent forgetting. When Bhadravahu observed a decline in retention power, mental fortitude, strength, enthusiasm, and courage, he compiled Dashashrutaskandha, Kalpa, and Vyavahara for the purification and preservation of conduct. Another reason was to prevent the cessation of Charananuyoga, which would lead to the absence of righteous conduct.

The Churnikaras clarify that Bhadravahu compiled these texts due to the decline in memory power and other faculties, not for personal gain like food, possessions, or fame.

The compilation is likened to a powerful person climbing a Kalpavriksha (wish-fulfilling tree) laden with fragrant flowers, collecting them, and distributing them to those unable to reach them. Similarly, Bhadravahu ascended the "Kalpavriksha" of the fourteen Purvas and, out of compassion, compiled the Ched texts. Analogies of a musician and a physician are also used.

The Naming of Chedsutras:

The Nandi Sutra places texts like Vyavahara and Brihatkalpa under the category of Kalikashruta. The Gommatasara, Dhavala, and Tattvarthasutra include them under Angabahya. It's suggested that when Bhadravahu compiled them, the distinct classification of "Chedsutra" might not have existed yet. These texts were later placed in this new classification to highlight their special importance.

The precise reason for the name "Chedsutra" is not clearly evidenced in ancient literature. The earliest mention of Chedsutras is in the Avashyaka Niyukti. Scholars have proposed various theories for this nomenclature:

Based on Expiation Types: Following the ten types of expiation mentioned by Brng, where 'Chheda' and 'Mula' are prominent categories, the Agamas might have been classified as 'Cheda' and 'Mula'. While Chedsutras align with the subject matter of 'Chheda' expiation, the current 'Mulasutras' don't always correspond to 'Mula' expiation.
Connection to "Chedopasthapaniya Charitra": Samayika Charitra (temporary conduct) is of short duration. Expiation is more closely linked to Chedopasthapaniya Charitra (conduct that is cut off and re-established). Since Chedsutras prescribe expiation for this type of conduct, the name might have originated from this.
'Chheda' as a Synonym for Expiation: The Digambara text Chhedapinda lists eight synonyms for expiation, one of which is 'Chheda'. In the Shvetambara tradition, among ten types of expiation, the seventh is 'Chheda'. The final three are performed after renouncing ascetic attire. However, the final expiation performed while in the ascetic order is 'Chheda'. Texts that prescribe the "cutting off" of conduct due to transgressions are called Chedsutras.
"Padavibhaga Samachari": In the commentary of the Avashyaka by Malayagiri, the term "Padavibhaga Samachari" is used for Chedsutras, implying division and separation. 'Padavibhaga' and 'Chheda' are synonymous.
Independent Nature of Sutras: Each sutra in a Chedsutra is independent, with no strong connection to others. Their explanation is also done from a perspective of division or separation, hence the name.
Aacharya Tulsi's Theory: He suggests that "Chedsutra" might be a misinterpretation of "Chhekasruta" (auspicious or supreme scripture). Since Dashashrutaskandha is a primary Chedsutra, and the term "cheya" (that which is to be cut or separated) is found in it, the transformation to "Cheka" is plausible.
Meaning of "Cheda": "Cheda" refers to that which does not obstruct rules and increases purity. Based on Haribhadra's interpretation in the commentary of Panchavastu, texts that are carriers of purity and sanctity are Chedsutras.

Names and Significance of the Four Main Chedsutras:

The naming of the currently available four Chedsutras is also meaningful:

Dashashrutaskandha: It describes various stages of ascetic life in ten studies, hence its name.
Brihatkalpa: "Kalpa" means conduct. This text describes ascetic rules and prohibitions in detail. Malayagiri has elaborated on the significance of the name "Brihatkalpa" in the preface to its commentary.
Vyavahara: It is a text of expiation. Its name is derived from the primary description of five types of conduct.
Nishitha (also known as Acharaprakalpa): It describes various schemes of conduct. "Nishitha" means midnight or darkness. According to the Nishitha Bhashya, its recitation was given at midnight or in darkness, hence the name. Its short name is "Prakalpa."

The Number of Chedsutras:

There are differing scholarly opinions on the number of Chedsutras.

The Samavayo places Dashashrutaskandha first among Chedsutras, considering it the primary text, with the other three being dependent on it.
Churnikaras list texts like Kalpa, Vyavahara, Kalpikalpakalpa, Kshullakalpa, Mahakalpa, and Nishitha as Chedsutras. The terms like "Adi" (etc.) suggest that Dashashrutaskandha is the primary reference.
Kalpikalpakalpa, Mahakalpa, and Kshullakalpa are currently unavailable.
The Vyavahara Niyukti mentions "Mahakavya" alongside Chedsutras, possibly referring to a large part of Nishitha.
Some scholars consider Dashashrutaskandha as one Shrutaskandha, and Kalpa and Vyavahara as another.
According to Hiralal Kapadia, after the disappearance of Panchakalpa, Jithakalpa began to be included among Chedsutras. However, Panchakalpa was possibly once a part of Brihatkalpa Bhashya and later separated.
Winternitz believes the order of composition of Chedsutras is: Kalpa, Vyavahara, Nishitha, Pindayukti, and Oghavada, excluding Jithakalpa. Jithakalpa was composed after the Nandi Sutra. Pindayukti and Oghavada describe ascetic rules, so Winternitz included them under Chedsutras.
In Digambara literature, only Kalpa, Vyavahara, and Nishitha are mentioned as Angabahya.

In conclusion, Chedsutras hold a significant place in Jain Agamic literature. They are crucial for determining rules and regulations when transgressions occur in conduct, thus holding significant importance from an ethical perspective as well.