Char Tirthankar - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Char Tirthankar" (Four Tirthankaras) by Sukhlal Sanghavi and others, based on the provided text:

Book Title: Char Tirthankar (Four Tirthankaras) Authors: Pt. Sukhlal Sanghavi, Shobhachad Bharilla, Bhavarmal Singhi, Sagarmal Jain, Dalsukh Malvania Publisher: Parshwanath Vidyapith Core Theme: The book delves into the lives and philosophies of four prominent Tirthankaras in Jainism: Rishabhadeva, Neminatha, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira. It aims to provide a historical and comparative perspective, emphasizing the broader relevance of these figures beyond the Jain tradition.

Summary of Key Chapters and Arguments:

1. Bhagavan Rishabhadeva and His Family:

Historical Uncertainty and Faith-Based Narratives: The author acknowledges that Rishabhadeva's period is immensely ancient, dating back millions and billions of years according to Jain scriptures. Historical evidence is scarce, and accounts are largely based on tradition, legends, and scriptural narratives. It's cautioned that these aren't entirely empirical but also not to be entirely dismissed.
Rishabhadeva's Universal Appeal: A central argument is that Rishabhadeva is not solely a Jain deity but is revered across various Arya (Indo-Aryan) traditions. The common misconception that he belongs only to Jainism is challenged.
Evidence for Universal Worship:
- Bhagavata Purana: The author points to the Bhagavata Purana, a prominent Vaishnava text (dating likely from the post-8th century CE), which includes Rishabhadeva's story. This indicates his veneration outside Jainism. The Jain accounts of Rishabhadeva are not necessarily older than the Bhagavata's portrayal.
- Rishipanchami Festival: The festival of Rishipanchami, observed by the wider Indian population, is proposed to be a corruption of "Rishabhapanchami." Both Jainism (as Samvatsarik festival) and Vedic traditions celebrate a festival on the same day (Bhadrapada Shukla Panchami), suggesting a shared ancient reverence for Rishabhadeva.
- Avadhoot Tradition: The existence of a sect in Bengal that worships Rishabhadeva as an "Avadhoot" (detached yogi) further supports his worship beyond Jainism. The practice of emulating Rishabhadeva's life, even to the point of indifference to bodily decay, is highlighted.
The True Nature of Jain Dharma: The book posits that the underlying nature of Jain Dharma is Pravritti-dharma (a dharma based on active engagement in life, similar to the four ashramas of Vedic tradition) rather than solely Nivritti-dharma (a dharma of renunciation). The emphasis on renunciation in modern Jainism is seen as a later development or a specific interpretation.
Rishabhadeva as a Propounder of Natural Dharma: Rishabhadeva's life, involving marriage, governance, teaching crafts, and raising a family before embracing asceticism, is presented as the natural, holistic way of life. The author argues that the current Jain emphasis on Nivritti-dharma has led to certain distortions and incompleteness in social life.
Reconciling Propensities with Renunciation: The author explores how historical figures like Hemachandra attempted to reconcile seemingly contradictory aspects of Rishabhadeva's life within the prevailing Nivritti-dharma framework, often by interpreting actions as guided by higher knowledge or compassion.
Bharat and Bahubali: The lives of Rishabhadeva's son Bharat and grandson Bahubali are examined. Bharat's role in establishing social structures (like varnas) and his interactions with his father are discussed, showing a blend of pravritti and later emphasis on elements of nivritti. Bahubali's profound renunciation after a near-battle is presented as a peak of spiritual realization.
Brahmī and Sundarī: The story of Rishabhadeva's daughters, Brahmī and Sundarī, is analyzed, particularly Sundari's renunciation and resistance to marriage. Their ability to guide Bahubali is seen as significant. The author notes the historical context of sibling marriage norms and the enduring power of spiritual guidance.

2. Bhagavan Neminatha and Krishna:

Shared Ancestry and Time Discrepancy: Both Neminatha and Krishna are believed to have originated from the Yadu dynasty. While Jain tradition places Neminatha 86,000 years ago, Krishna's timeline is much more recent. The author suggests Neminatha might have predated Parshvanatha rather than the vast Jain timescale.
Krishna's Absence in Jain Texts: It's noted as curious that while Jain tradition extensively mentions Krishna in relation to Neminatha, Krishna's own literature rarely mentions Neminatha.
Neminatha's Renunciation: Neminatha's story is primarily highlighted for his renunciation at the wedding ceremony upon witnessing the suffering of animals meant for sacrifice. This act exemplifies the Jain ideal of compassion and detachment.
Rajimati's Spirituality: Neminatha's wife, Rajimati, also embraces asceticism, demonstrating spiritual strength. She also guides Neminatha's brother, Ratnemi, towards righteousness.
Krishna as a "Karma-Veer" (Man of Action) vs. Neminatha as "Dharma-Veer" (Man of Dharma): Krishna's life, characterized by active participation in worldly affairs, protection of cattle (Gopala), and strategic actions, contrasts with Neminatha's focus on renunciation and compassion for all life. Krishna represents the Mahayana ideal of actively engaging for the welfare of others, while Neminatha embodies the Hinayana ideal of individual spiritual liberation and universal compassion.
Cultural Synthesis: The author suggests that the separation of these ideals (Hinyana and Mahayana) has harmed Indian culture. Understanding both Krishna and Neminatha is crucial for a complete appreciation of Arya culture.

3. Dirgh Tapasvi Mahavira (The Great Ascetic Mahavira):

Historical Context: The chapter sets the stage by describing the socio-political and religious landscape of India around 2,500 years ago, marked by various ascetic traditions, ritualism, caste-based discrimination, and political instability.
Mahavira's Names and Stages of Life: Mahavira is known by several names: Vardhamana (his childhood name), Mahavira (due to his intense asceticism), and Shraman Bhagavan (as a preacher). The author uses these to delineate his life into householder, ascetic, and preacher phases.
Family Background and Early Life: Details about Mahavira's parents (Siddhartha and Trishala), elder brother (Nandivardhana), sister (Sunanda), wife (Yashoda, according to Shvetambara tradition), and son-in-law (Jamali) are provided. His early life showed signs of detachment and a propensity for renunciation.
Ascetic Path (Sadhak Jivan): At 30, Mahavira renounced his home, practiced severe austerities for 12 years, and embraced the vows of absolute non-violence (Ahimsa) and self-control (Samyama). His intense tapas (austerities) and samyama are presented as means to achieve Ahimsa.
The Core Principle of Ahimsa: Mahavira identified violence stemming from attachment to pleasure and sensory indulgence as the root of suffering and conflict. His path was to conquer these internal enemies through rigorous self-discipline.
The Role of Tapas and Samyama: Tapas was not merely physical endurance but a means to cultivate patience and overcome mental weaknesses that lead to violence. Samyama (restraint of mind and speech) was equally crucial.
Goshalak's Association: The temporary association with Goshalak, who later became a rival and founder of the Ajivika sect, is noted as significant for understanding the intellectual currents of the time.
Preaching Life (Updeshak Jivan): From age 43 to 72, Mahavira dedicated his life to public service, emphasizing:
- Equality: Opening the path to asceticism and spiritual leadership to all, including Shudras, breaking caste barriers.
- Women's Liberation: Granting women complete freedom and equal spiritual opportunities.
- Vernacular Language: Preaching in local languages to make spiritual knowledge accessible to the masses.
- Emphasis on Inner Purity: Promoting self-reliance, austerity, and love for Ahimsa over mere ritualistic actions.
- True Renunciation: Distinguishing genuine renunciation from mere outward show.
Discipleship and Opposition: Mahavira's Sangha comprised monks and nuns from all varnas. His chief opponents included Jamali (his son-in-law) and Goshalak.
Compromise and Sectarianism: The text discusses the historical context of the Jain tradition, noting that Mahavira built upon the existing Nirgrantha tradition (associated with Parshvanatha). The distinction between wearing clothes (Sachil) and non-wearing (Achil) is discussed as a point of contention that later led to sectarian divisions (Shvetambara and Digambara).
Mahavira's Message: The essence of Mahavira's teachings lies in absolute Ahimsa in conduct and Anekantavada (multi-faceted reality) in philosophy.

4. Dharma-Veer Mahavira and Karma-Veer Krishna:

Evolution of Worship: The chapter traces the shift from worship of abstract divine powers to the worship of human exemplars of virtue, catalyzed by figures like Mahavira and Buddha.
Humanity's Role in Divine Manifestation: While Vedic tradition saw divine beings incarnating as humans (like Rama and Krishna), Jain and Buddhist traditions see humans achieving divinity through their own spiritual efforts.
Four Great Arya Personalities: The book identifies Rama, Krishna, Mahavira, and Buddha as the four central human figures revered across Arya traditions, each representing different facets of spirituality and social engagement.
Comparative Ideals:
- Rama and Krishna: Represent the Pravritti-dharma ideal, involving righteous governance, protection of dharma, and engagement in worldly affairs (including war), often seen as the Karma-Viras.
- Mahavira and Buddha: Embody the Nivritti-dharma ideal, focusing on inner purification, renunciation, and detachment, primarily as Dharma-Viras.
Cultural Influence and Adaptation: The chapter explores how stories and concepts were adapted across traditions. For example, the Jain tradition adapted stories of Krishna, reinterpreting violent acts within their framework of Ahimsa, while Vedic tradition incorporated Buddha as an avatar.
Methodology of Narrative: The author analyzes the use of miracles and extraordinary events in religious narratives to impress upon the masses. This is contrasted with a modern historical-scientific approach that seeks empirical proof.
Interpretation of Events: Miraculous events in Mahavira's and Krishna's lives are re-examined through a lens of symbolism and psychological interpretation, suggesting that divine interventions might represent profound internal spiritual achievements or poetic embellishments.
The Concept of "Purushartha": Both Mahavira and Krishna are seen as exemplars of "Purushartha" (human effort), with Mahavira focusing on internal spiritual effort and Krishna on external socio-political action for collective well-being.

5. Mahavira's Life: A Historical Perspective:

The Demand for Historical Accuracy: This chapter addresses the growing demand for a historical account of Mahavira's life, moving beyond purely devotional narratives. The influence of scientific and historical thinking in the modern era is highlighted.
Sources of Mahavira's Life: The author identifies three primary sources: literary (Jain Agamas, Buddhist Pitakas, Vedic texts), geographical (places associated with Mahavira), and traditional (Jain practices and customs).
Reconciling Contradictions: The chapter tackles apparent contradictions in Mahavira's biography, such as the descriptions of two mothers (Trishala and Devananda) and the miraculous event of the Meru mountain shaking at his birth.
Two Mothers and Garbha-Harana: The concept of two mothers is explored, suggesting a possible adoption or foster relationship between Trishala and Devananda, with Devananda being the biological mother. The "Garbha-Harana" (transfer of womb) is interpreted metaphorically as the transfer of spiritual consciousness or lineage.
Meru-Kambana (Shaking of Meru): The story of the Meru mountain shaking at Mahavira's birth is compared to similar Puranic tales (like Krishna lifting Govardhan Hill). It's suggested that these might be embellishments or symbolic representations of Mahavira's spiritual prowess.
Deva-Srishti (Divine Beings): The presence of divine beings in Mahavira's life is explained as a possible metaphorical representation of Mahavira's exceptional spiritual state or a concession to popular beliefs in the era.
Sectarian Interpretations: The author notes how different Jain sects (Shvetambara and Digambara) interpret Mahavira's life and teachings differently, often leading to disputes. A historical approach seeks to find common ground and original intent.
Parshvanatha's Legacy: The connection between Mahavira and his predecessor Parshvanatha is emphasized. Parshvanatha's teachings and the organization he established (Sangha) provided the foundation for Mahavira's work.
Mahavira's Reforms: Mahavira's innovations, such as the emphasis on five vows (Panchamahavrata) and daily repentance (Pratikramana), are seen as refinements of the existing four vows (Chaturyama) of Parshvanatha's tradition.
The Role of Historical Research: The chapter underscores the importance of interdisciplinary research, including examining Buddhist scriptures and geographical locations, to validate Jain traditions and present a balanced historical account.

6. Mahavira's Auspicious Legacy:

The Nature of Legacy: This chapter defines legacy as something more profound than physical inheritance or even ingrained habits. It highlights a "spiritual legacy" or "auspicious movement" that inspires and elevates life.
Four Types of Legacy:
1. Physical/Biological: Inherited physical traits.
2. Material: Wealth and property.
3. Sanity/Intellectual: Acquired habits, knowledge, and mindset from family, teachers, and society.
4. Spiritual/Auspicious: An intangible, life-affirming force that transcends the physical and material, transmitted through profound spiritual experiences and realized teachings.
Mahavira's Spiritual Legacy: The core of Mahavira's legacy is identified as his life-vision (Jivan-drishti), life-purification (Jivan-shuddhi), transformation of life-conduct (Jivan-vyavahar parivartan), and human effort (Purushartha).
Life-Vision of Universality: Mahavira's vision extended to all forms of life, seeing the same consciousness (Chetana) in diverse beings, from humans to plants. This "Atmaupamya Drishti" (seeing oneself in others) is the foundation of his compassion.
Life-Purification: The inherent purity of consciousness is emphasized, which can be obscured by worldly attachments. Spiritual practice aims to uncover this original purity.
Transformation of Conduct: True spiritual realization requires a change in daily conduct (Charan-Karan), leading to a simple, honest, and non-violent lifestyle.
The Power of Purushartha: Mahavira stressed that spiritual progress is not dependent on divine intervention but on personal effort (Purushartha), discipline (Samyama), and resilience in facing challenges.
The "Mahavira" as an Archetype: The name "Mahavira" itself is seen as a title earned through extraordinary spiritual effort, applicable to anyone who displays such qualities.
Interconnection of Traditions: The author draws parallels between Mahavira's teachings and concepts in Upanishadic philosophy (e.g., "Tat Tvam Asi," the concept of "Bhuma" or the infinite) and Buddhist thought, emphasizing the universal nature of spiritual truths.
The Source of Legacy: Mahavira's spiritual legacy is not an isolated achievement but a culmination of a long tradition of spiritual striving, extending back to Rishabhadeva and beyond. It is a continuous flow of spiritual energy and wisdom passed down through generations.
The "Mangal" (Auspiciousness): The legacy of Mahavira is described as a source of profound auspiciousness that can lead to a higher, more meaningful life, transcending mere physical, material, or societal conditioning.

7. Bhagavan Parshvanatha's Legacy: A Historical Study:

Historical Validation of Parshvanatha: This chapter directly addresses the historical existence of Parshvanatha, validating it based on the work of scholars like Dr. Jacobi, who found evidence in both Jain and Buddhist scriptures.
Parshvanatha's Tradition: Parshvanatha's legacy to Mahavira is traced through three key aspects: the Sangha (community of followers), Achar (conduct and vows), and Shrut (scriptural knowledge).
Evidence of Parshvanatha's Influence:
- Geographical Spread: The geographical areas where Parshvanatha's followers (Parshvapatyika) were active, including Kashi, Shravasti, Vaishali, and Rajgriha, overlap with Mahavira's preaching grounds.
- Shared Terminology: Similarities in philosophical and ethical terms found in Jain Agamas and Buddhist Pitakas (like "Pudgal," "Asava," "Samvara," "Uposatha," "Shravaka," "Avadhoot") suggest a common linguistic and conceptual heritage, possibly originating from the Nirgrantha tradition of Parshvanatha.
- Buddha's Connection: The text suggests that Buddha might have briefly followed the Nirgrantha path of Parshvanatha before establishing his own distinct teachings.
Mahavira's Reforms: Mahavira built upon Parshvanatha's Chaturyama (four vows), expanding it to Panchamahavrata (five great vows) by separating celibacy (Brahmacharya) from non-possession (Aparigraha) and introducing the practice of Pratikramana (daily repentance).
Discipline and Ethics: The differences in the interpretation of the five vows between Shvetambara and Digambara traditions are discussed, with the author leaning towards the Shvetambara view that Mahavira's reforms were applied universally to all ascetics.
Shrut (Scriptural Heritage): The concept of "Purva" (earlier scriptures) is explored, suggesting that Mahavira's teachings were not entirely novel but drew from and refined earlier traditions, particularly those of Parshvanatha.
The Importance of Historical Research: The chapter emphasizes the need for critical examination of scriptures, comparison with other traditions, and study of geographical evidence to reconstruct a historically accurate understanding of Mahavira's life and legacy.
Unanswered Questions: The author concludes by highlighting areas needing further research, such as Mahavira's precise relationship with other contemporary ascetic traditions, the fate of the non-integrated Parshvapatyikas, and the evolution of the four-ashrama system in Vedic tradition.

Overall Significance:

"Char Tirthankar" is a profound scholarly work that seeks to demystify the lives of the Tirthankaras by grounding them in historical context and comparative philosophy. It encourages a broader understanding of Jainism's place within the larger spectrum of Indian spiritual thought, challenging narrow sectarian views and promoting a more inclusive and critically examined approach to religious heritage. The book underscores that the teachings of these great souls have enduring relevance for individual and societal transformation.