Chandra Images From Rajasthan - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Chandra Images from Rajasthan" by R. C. Agrawala:

This article, "Chandra Images from Rajasthan," by R. C. Agrawala, Director of Archaeology & Museums, Jaipur, explores the sculptural representations of Chandra (the Moon God) found in Rajasthan, comparing them with earlier known examples from other parts of India and discussing their iconographic significance.

The author begins by referencing previous publications on Chandra images, including a Gupta stone head from Vidiśā (now in Gwalior Museum) with a characteristic Gupta crown and a half-moon mark. He also mentions a standing Chandra from Pahārpur (Bengal) that holds a rosary and a nectar-pot, as described in the Agni Purana. This Pahārpur image is noted for the absence of a vehicle, and its depiction of matted locks and a prominent half-moon above the head led to an initial misinterpretation as a form of Shiva.

Agrawala then discusses a medieval marble relief from Vāṇāgar (North Gujarat) depicting Chandra and Surya side-by-side, with Chandra holding a water-pot and a rosary. The crescent mark behind his head confirms his identity.

The text delves into scriptural descriptions, noting that the Vishnudharmottara Purāṇa refers to a four-armed Chandra seated on a chariot drawn by 10 horses, a form seen in a late statue in Nagpur Museum. However, contemporary or medieval icons depicting this aspect are rare.

The core of the paper focuses on independent carvings from Rajasthan. Agrawala highlights several significant examples:

Osian (Jodhpur):
- An image on the exterior south wall of the main sanctum of Temple No. 2 shows a standing, two-armed Chandra with a crescent mark at the back. He holds a kamandalu (water-pot) in his left hand and an aksha-mala (rosary) in his right. The vehicle appears to be a lion, though this is absent in another similar standing Chandra relief at a roadside temple in the same location.
- A particularly important seated Chandra is found on the exterior of Hari Hara Temple No. 1 at Osian. This sculpture, with a partially damaged face, depicts Chandra with matted locks and holding a rosary and water-pot. Crucially, it features two swans below his seat, facing opposite directions. Agrawala considers this an unusual sculpture and suggests the swans might allude to Chandra's association with sapta-hamsa-ratha (chariot of seven swans), a concept also linked to Brahma and Varuna. He emphasizes that the Osian temples are Brahmanical, making this representation of Chandra with swans of significant artistic and iconographic interest, potentially reflecting the travel of Indian art traditions to Central Asia.
Chittorgarh (Rajasthan): An 8th-century stone relief in the right exterior niche of the Sun Temple at Chittor depicts a standing, two-armed Chandra accompanied by an animal, possibly a dog. This vehicle is unusual for Chandra. The relief vividly details other features like matted locks, a crescent mark, and a rope-like garland. The author notes the rarity of finding an independent image of Chandra within a Surya temple.
Pengore (Bharatpur): Agrawala discovered a colossal stone relief of a standing, two-armed Chandra holding a water-pot and rosary. A tiny figure of a single swan near his right leg is a significant detail. This relief, dated to the Pratihara period, is now housed in the Bharatpur Museum.

Agrawala also discusses the vehicles associated with Chandra as identified by Mrs. Debala Mitra, including fish, horse, animal (possibly lion), ram, and crocodile (makara). He explains the association of the crocodile with Chandra due to the latter's link with water and his being an aspect of Varuna, according to the Vishnudharmottara Purāṇa. The Purana's mention of Varuna's chariot drawn by seven swans, and a similar chariot prescribed for Brahma, is linked to the sculptural representation at Elephanta and the literary association of Brahma with Soma (Chandra). The transference of Brahma's or Varuna's swan motif to Chandra is suggested as a possible explanation for the swan representations.

The author also briefly touches upon the representation of Sun and Moon as emblems carried by Shiva, citing examples from Central Asia and early Gupta terracotta from Rangamahals (Bikaner Museum). He suggests that what was previously interpreted as Ganga or a Gana figure above Shiva's head in the Bikaner terracotta might actually be Chandra carrying a crescent mark. This leads to a discussion of the Chaturmurti aspect of Shiva and the potential significance of these emblems.

The text further explores the Kushana period and mentions an inscribed Varaha from Mathura Museum that holds two circular discs, likely depicting Chandra and Surya. The limited space in the relief might have prevented the full carving of their respective chariots and horses.

Finally, Agrawala contrasts the depictions of Chandra with Varuna, noting that Varuna is often associated with a noose and a swan, and sometimes a crocodile. He clarifies that a figure riding a swan on a Pratihara relief from Kannauj, previously identified by some as Karttikeya, is more likely Varuna, especially given the presence of a noose and the absence of a crescent mark. He also mentions a 10th-century panel from Sikar showing dancing Ganesa, standing Sun, and Moon in a row, with Chandra marked by a crescent, another unusual combination.

In essence, the article provides a detailed survey and analysis of various sculptural representations of Chandra from Rajasthan, contextualizing them within broader Indian art history and textual traditions, and highlighting unique iconographic features such as the presence or absence of vehicles and the symbolism of associated motifs like swans.