Buddhismus Und Natur

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided text, "Buddhismus und Natur" by Lambert Schmithausen, focusing on its exploration of Buddhism's relationship with nature:

The author, Lambert Schmithausen, begins by clarifying his scope and approach. He defines "nature" as the environment or "co-existence" (Mitwelt), encompassing animals, plants, and the natural world unaffected by modern civilization. He acknowledges that his study is an initial attempt, prioritizing theoretical and normative aspects over everyday behavior and focusing primarily on early Buddhism (specifically the Hinayana tradition) while also considering Mahayana, with only occasional mentions of esoteric or non-Indian developments.

Schmithausen emphasizes that the modern understanding of humanity's relationship with nature, particularly the ecological crisis, is a dimension not faced by earlier cultures. He notes that while the Buddhist tradition is not directly confronting this crisis, it is a reality for Buddhism as a living religion today. He questions whether Buddhism facilitates or counteracts modern civilization's exploitative view of nature and whether traditional Buddhist principles can offer solutions. The author also reveals a personal connection to this topic, citing the lament of an Omaha Native American about the degradation of the land.

The core of the paper explores the consequences of Buddhist principles for its relationship with nature, examining this through three lenses:

1. The Ideal State of Liberation (Heils- oder Idealzustand):

   • Early Buddhism (Hinayana): The world is not a divine creation but an endless cycle of rebirth and suffering, driven by flawed will. Even heavenly realms are impermanent. All worldly existence, including nature, is fundamentally negative due to impermanence and suffering. The ultimate goal, Nirvana, is the cessation of all worldly existence, and thus, nature has no place in it. However, sentient beings within nature (animals) are not excluded from salvation, though they can only achieve it through rebirth as humans. Nirvana marks the end of all forms of existence, including animal existence; natural beings do not have an "eschatological" value in themselves. Plants are not considered sentient and do not suffer.
   • Mahayana Buddhism: The perception of existence shifts from merely impermanent and insubstantial to nothingness, illusion, or dream. Nirvana is seen as eternally present and the true essence of all existence. While this brings Nirvana closer to the world, it doesn't grant nature more space within it; rather, Nirvana's emptiness permeates nature from within. Even when the ultimate reality is viewed positively as "highest being" or Buddha-nature, nature as such cannot enter this state, nor is it a creation of it.
   • Specific Buddhist Pure Lands: These are idealized paradises populated by Buddhas and their followers, offering blissful lives. Sukhāvatī, the Pure Land of Amitābha, is described as a landscape of gemstones, pleasant sounds, and perfectly arranged elements, free from suffering, decay, and danger. It selectively presents the pleasant aspects of nature, omitting anything perceived as inconvenient, harmful, or ugly. This ideal environment reflects a "civilized human" conception of an ideal world, prioritizing tranquility and spiritual detachment over the wild, sensual, and potentially dangerous aspects of nature. The absence of animals and the artificiality of the birds emphasize the removal of suffering and the cycle of birth and death.

2. Buddhist Spirituality (Spiritualität):

   • Early Buddhism: The spiritual practice emphasizes understanding the unsatisfactory nature of all existence, including nature's impermanence and suffering. Meditational practices often involve contemplating natural phenomena like mountains, rivers, and changing leaves to cultivate the awareness of impermanence. The author notes that large-scale loss of natural habitats and species extinction, while problematic from an environmental perspective, would be viewed by Buddhists as a stark confirmation of universal impermanence, to be accepted with equanimity. Similarly, technological progress is seen as unable to alter the fundamental unsatisfactoriness of existence.
   • Meditation Sites: Early Buddhist texts favor solitude and natural settings like forests, tree roots, and mountain caves for meditation, highlighting their conducive nature for peace and quiet. The beauty of nature can be appreciated and is seen as supporting meditation, particularly for those prone to depression. However, the author cautions that canonical Indian Buddhist texts primarily value natural settings for their tranquility and seclusion, rather than for an aesthetic experience of nature itself. While some verses express an appreciation for natural beauty, these are rare and often reinterpreted as expressions of spiritual detachment.
   • Mahayana Buddhism: The focus shifts to the emptiness of phenomena and the "highest being" within them. Mystical experiences involve the disappearance of phenomena, with no space for nature in this realization. The subsequent re-engagement with the world is through the lens of this mystical insight, experiencing it as illusory. This experience also forms the basis for the Mahayana ethic of compassion.

3. Practical Conduct (Praktisches Verhalten):

   • Early Buddhism: The core teachings (existence analysis and ethics) lead to a negative valuation of nature as impermanent and suffering. This doesn't motivate the subjugation of nature but also doesn't encourage its preservation for its own sake. However, the ethical principle of universal compassion (apramāna) is crucial. This involves radiating feelings of goodwill, compassion, joy, and equanimity towards all sentient beings.
   • Compassion and Ethics: The development of universal compassion, especially in Mahayana, extends to animals. They are objects of compassion and potential recipients of liberation, not as species but as individual sentient beings. The concept of Buddha-nature inherent in all beings leads to a respect for all sentient beings, including animals, as potential vessels of this Buddha-nature.
   • The Five Precepts and Ahimsā (Non-violence): The fundamental ethical principle of ahimsā (non-violence) is central to Buddhist practice. This forbids the harming or killing of any sentient being, including animals, insects, and even plants (initially, due to the belief in universal animation).
   • Nature Destruction: The destruction of natural habitats is impermissible as it leads to the death of animals. The Vinaya texts even forbid damaging plants because they serve as habitats for animals. The cultivation of gardens and parks is praised, but this is framed as human-centric improvement rather than ecological preservation in the modern sense.
   • Intent vs. Outcome: While Buddhist ethics emphasize intention, the author argues that natural environmental destruction, even if unintentional (e.g., through pollution), is problematic and should be minimized. Negligence and lack of foresight regarding the consequences of actions are also considered offenses.
   • Modern Challenges: The author suggests that the Buddha would likely prohibit actions like driving cars due to the unavoidable harm to small creatures. Ahimsā also clearly prohibits practices like animal testing or factory farming.
   • Mahayana and Intentionality: Mahayana Buddhism allows for a balancing of ahimsā with compassion, where causing harm might be permissible if it prevents a greater harm or leads to the salvation of more beings. This principle could potentially justify animal experimentation for medical purposes, but it also raises concerns about anthropocentrism and the potential justification of harmful human practices.
   • Vegetarianism: While ahimsā might suggest vegetarianism, it is not universally practiced in Buddhism. Early Buddhism permitted the consumption of meat and fish if the animals were not killed specifically for the monk. Vegetarianism became more prominent in Mahayana, linked to the understanding of Buddha-nature in all beings. The author notes that this stricter stance is more prevalent in East Asian Buddhism.
   • Universal Animation: The early Buddhist tradition likely inherited the Jain belief in the animation of plants, elements, and even the earth. This would make total non-harming practically impossible. The gradual narrowing of the definition of "living beings" to primarily animals in Buddhism allowed for a more practical application of ethical guidelines, though the prohibition of harming plants and habitats for animals persisted.
   • Reinterpretation of Rules: As Buddhist doctrines evolved, rules originally based on universal animation were reinterpreted. For example, the symbolic breaking of grains became a formal act rather than a literal killing. The prohibition of harming plants was sometimes justified by the need to avoid offending lay beliefs or to protect the dwellings of spirits and deities, or, more ecologically, because plants serve as habitats for animals.
   • East Asian Buddhism: Some schools in East Asian Buddhism have revived the idea of plant sentience, influenced by philosophical concepts of interconnectedness and the presence of Buddha-nature in all things. This leads to a reverence for plants and nature itself.
   • Conclusion: Schmithausen concludes that early Buddhism's focus on impermanence and suffering did not foster an exploitative relationship with nature. While it didn't actively promote nature conservation, the emphasis on compassion and non-violence towards all sentient beings, particularly in Mahayana, served as a counterforce against anthropocentric exploitation. The problematic aspect is the exclusion of plants from the category of sentient beings, though they are still protected as habitats for animals. The integration of local and nature spirits, contrasting with Christian demonization, also contributed to a less exploitative approach. While total non-harming is impractical, ahimsā as a guiding ethical principle, interpreted as minimizing harm, remains relevant. The author expresses hope that Buddhist countries will embrace and adapt traditional ethical principles for nature conservation, and that similar approaches will gain ground globally, as anthropocentrism currently dominates.