Bhartiya Darshano Ma Moksh Vichar

This document, titled "Bhartiye Darshano ma Moksh Vichar" (The Concept of Moksha in Indian Philosophies) by Nagin J Shah, explores the multifaceted understanding of liberation (Moksha) across various schools of Indian philosophy.

Introduction to Moksha:

The text begins by defining Moksha as liberation (mukti) of the self (atma) from suffering (duhkha). This concept presupposes the existence of the soul, the experience of suffering by the soul, the causes of suffering, the means to overcome these causes, and the possibility of achieving liberation. It draws parallels with Buddha's Four Noble Truths and Yoga's concept of fourfoldness. Moksha is not a temporary relief but an eternal cessation of all forms of suffering, distinguishing it from the temporary relief from pain after removing a thorn.

The Nature of the Soul (Atma):

A crucial aspect of understanding Moksha lies in comprehending the nature of the soul, as it is the soul that experiences suffering. The document briefly outlines the views of different philosophies on the soul:

• Charvaka: Believes in an atheistic philosophy, considering the soul (atma) as a product of the specific combination of material elements (bhutas). Upon the dissolution of this combination, the soul is annihilated. Consciousness is seen as a property of matter.
• Ancient Samkhya, Jain, and Buddhist: In contrast to Charvaka, these schools posit that consciousness (jnana) is distinct from material elements. They advocate for a separate, conscious element (chitta) that is also subject to change. The interaction and separation between the conscious and material elements are key.
• Later Samkhya: Introduces a dualism of self (atma) and non-self (anatma). It proposes a "Purusha" or "Atma" distinct from and beyond "Chitta." Consciousness (jnana) is attributed to Chitta, while perception (darshan) belongs to Purusha. Purusha is considered eternal and unchanging, creating a dualism between the transient and the immutable. The relationship between the two is described as reflection.
• Jain and Buddhist Counterpoint: Both Jainism and Buddhism reject the concept of Purusha as separate from consciousness. They accept the faculty of perception (darshan) but attribute it to consciousness (Chitta) itself, which is considered both the knower and the perceiver. Therefore, they see no need for a separate Purusha.
• Nyaya-Vaisheshika: Accepts the eternal Purusha of later Samkhya but rejects the Samkhya's concept of Chitta. While Jainism and Buddhism attributed perception to Chitta, Nyaya-Vaisheshika attributes the faculty of knowledge (jnana) to the soul (Atma). To reconcile the immutable nature of the soul with the transient nature of knowledge, they posit that knowledge is a quality (guna) of the soul, not its inherent nature. It arises from the interaction of the soul, mind, and senses and exists in the soul through a summative relation. They do not explicitly discuss the soul's inherent faculty of perception.
• Shankara Vedanta: Rejects both Chitta and Anatma. It goes further than Nyaya-Vaisheshika by rejecting the qualities of Chitta as well, considering them all illusory (mithya). Only Purusha is considered real. Knowledge is not accepted as a quality of Purusha; rather, Purusha is characterized by perception (darshan).

Types and Causes of Suffering:

The text categorizes suffering into three types:

• Adhyatmika: Mental suffering.
• Adhibhautika: Suffering arising from within the body due to illness.
• Adhidaivika: Suffering inflicted by other beings.

Even seemingly pleasant experiences are ultimately considered suffering because of the underlying fear of loss, the memory of past pleasures leading to future desires, and the inherent transient nature of all worldly pleasures. Suffering also arises from the obscuration of one's true nature and the inherent limitation of existence.

The root cause of suffering is identified as ignorance (avidya) of one's true nature. This ignorance leads to attachment (raga) and aversion (dvesha), which generate karma. Karma, often described as subtle physical matter, further obscures the soul's innate qualities like knowledge.

Means to Overcome Suffering:

The path to liberation involves:

• Gaining knowledge of one's true nature: This requires purification of the mind (Chitta shuddhi) through practices like cultivating virtues of friendliness (maitri), compassion (karuna), sympathetic joy (mudita), and equanimity (upeksha).
• Ethical practices: Adherence to Yama (restraints) and Niyama (observances).
• Meditation: Controlling the modifications of the mind (chitta vritti nirodha) to realize one's true self.
• Elimination of afflictions (kleshas): Reducing attachment, desire, anger, etc. This leads to the cessation of karma and the manifestation of the soul's pure nature.

Is Moksha Possible?

The text addresses arguments against the possibility of Moksha:

• Inherent nature of afflictions: Afflictions are seen as innate and unbreakable.
• Cycle of karma and action: Actions lead to karma, which necessitates further actions to be experienced, creating a perpetual cycle.
• Impossibility of true knowledge: The senses are too powerful, and distractions prevent the concentration required for true knowledge.
• Threat of existential annihilation: If Moksha were possible, everyone would eventually be liberated, leading to the cessation of the world.

The text refutes these arguments by pointing to states of deep sleep as evidence of the temporary cessation of afflictions, stating that actions performed without afflictions do not bind karma, and that sustained practice can overcome distractions. It also argues that the universe will not cease to exist because the number of sentient beings is infinite.

Moksha According to Different Philosophies:

• Jainism: Moksha is achieved when the karmic veils, accumulated due to afflictions and actions, are completely removed. The liberated soul (Chitta) remains in a state of pure transformation, possessing infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy. It becomes free from the influence of pleasure and pain. Liberated souls ascend to the apex of the universe and reside on the Siddhashila. The Jain path to Moksha involves Samvara (prevention of new karma) and Nirjara (eradication of existing karma), achieved through practices like self-control, mindfulness, tolerance, forgiveness, renunciation, and austerity. Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct are considered the direct means to Moksha.
• Buddhism: The soul is identified with consciousness (Chitta), which is inherently luminous but obscured by impurities like attachment and aversion. Moksha, or Nirvana, is the removal of these impurities, allowing consciousness to return to its pure state. Nirvana is described as the cessation of the five aggregates (skandhas): form, feelings, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. This cessation leads to the absence of individual personality (pudgala), which is seen as a temporary construct of the aggregates. Nirvana is not an annihilation of consciousness but a state of pure, unchanging awareness, free from subject-object distinctions and suffering. The path to Nirvana involves ethical conduct (Shila), concentration (Samadhi), and wisdom (Prajna), as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path.
• Samkhya-Yoga: Moksha is the absolute cessation of the three types of suffering. This philosophy posits a distinction between the unchanging Purusha and the mutable consciousness (Chitta). Some interpret Moksha as the liberation of Chitta, while others believe it is the liberation of Purusha. In the former view, through spiritual practice, Chitta purifies itself and realizes its distinction from Purusha, leading to its cessation. In the latter view, the unchanging Purusha, though a witness, experiences a reflected state of consciousness. Liberation involves the removal of this reflection, leading to Purusha's realization of its pure, unadulterated state. This is achieved through discrimination (viveka) and the cessation of all mental modifications.
• Nyaya-Vaisheshika: Moksha is the absolute cessation of suffering, which is considered a quality of the soul (Atma). This cessation is achieved by stopping the generation of these qualities, leading to the absence of suffering in the soul. The soul, being eternal and unchanging, is distinct from these transient qualities. The ultimate liberation involves the complete eradication of nine special qualities of the soul: knowledge, happiness, suffering, desire, aversion, effort, dharma, adharma, and sanskara. The soul's true nature is considered to be perception (darshan), though this aspect is not explicitly discussed by them. Critics argue that such a state, devoid of knowledge and happiness, is akin to unconsciousness. The Nyaya-Vaisheshika school counters by stating that the question of suffering only arises where suffering is possible, which is not the case for inanimate objects like stones.
• Mimamsa: Similar to Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Mimamsa considers knowledge a quality of the soul, not its inherent nature. Moksha is characterized by the absence of suffering and a state of potentiality for knowledge, but not actual knowledge or happiness. Suffering and bondage are attributed to desire-driven actions (kamya karma). Performing Vedic rituals without desire is considered non-binding. Understanding the self (Atma) is crucial, and this is achieved through studying Vedanta. Ultimately, action performed after self-knowledge is considered the direct cause of Moksha.
• Shankara Vedanta: This non-dualistic philosophy posits that the entire world, including consciousness (Chitta), is illusory (mithya) and ultimately subsumed within the single, ultimate reality of Brahman. The individual soul (Jiva) is a reflection of Brahman in the illusory Chitta. Moksha is the realization of this non-duality – the understanding that the individual self is identical with Brahman. This realization dispels ignorance and the suffering arising from the illusion of a separate self. The liberated soul merges with Brahman, becoming one with its blissful nature. There is no separate experience of happiness or suffering in this state; the liberated being is bliss itself.

The document concludes by emphasizing the common thread of overcoming suffering and realizing one's true nature across these diverse philosophical traditions, even while differing on the precise nature of the soul and the state of liberation.