Bhartiya Darshano Ma Ishwar

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Bhartiya Darshano ma Ishwar," focusing on its discussion of God in Indian philosophies, with particular emphasis on the Jain perspective.

Book Title: Bhartiya Darshano ma Ishwar (God in Indian Philosophies) Author: Nagin J Shah Publisher: Z_Bharatiya_Tattva_gyan_001201.pdf Catalog Link: https://jainqq.org/explore/249537/1

Overall Theme:

The book examines the concept of God (Ishwar) across various Indian philosophical schools. It categorizes Indian philosophers into two main groups concerning Ishwar:

1. Theistic View: Believes in a permanently liberated, world-creating, singular soul as Ishwar. This soul was never bound, is not bound, and will never be bound.
2. Non-Theistic/Liberated-Teacher View: Believes that Ishwar is a soul liberated through spiritual practice, who has become free from afflictions (Vitaraaga) and preaches the path of liberation to others. This group rejects the existence of a permanently liberated, world-creating Ishwar, asserting that the liberated preacher (Jivanmukta) is the true Ishwar.

The book then proceeds to analyze the concept of Ishwar in each major Indian philosophical system.

Jain Philosophy's View on Ishwar (Page 1-2):

• Rejection of a World-Creating Ishwar: Jainism does not accept the concept of a permanently liberated, world-creating Ishwar. Jain thinkers have pointed out the flaws in this belief.
• The Tirthankara as Ishwar: Jainism considers the Tirthankaras as Ishwar. Tirthankara, Arhat, and Jin are synonymous terms.
  • A Tirthankara is one who renounces worldly life, accepts the path of a monk (Shraman), achieves the destruction of passion and aversion through yoga practice, sheds all karmas that veil their true nature, attains omniscience (Kevaljnana), and then preaches the path to liberation (Mokshamarga).
  • The Tirthankara establishes the order of monks (Shramana Sangha). The teachings of the Mokshamarga and the Shramana Sangha are the "ford" (Tirtha) to cross the ocean of existence.
  • Only those who have achieved freedom from passion (Vitaraag) through practice are qualified to preach the path of Vitaraagata (Mokshamarga).
• Tirthankara vs. Ordinary Kevalin: While ordinary Kevalins (omniscient beings) also achieve liberation and possess infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and vigor, they do not preach the path of liberation or establish the Shramana Sangha. This distinction highlights the unique role of Tirthankaras.
• Purpose of Tirthankara Worship: Jains worship Tirthankaras as Ishwar because they are the greatest benefactors of beings. The worship is aimed at cultivating the qualities of Vitaraagata in oneself.
• Tirthankaras and Rebirth: Like the Jivanmukta accepted in other philosophies, Tirthankaras do not experience rebirth. The life in which they achieve Vitaraagata and the Tirthankara status is their final birth. They exhaust their past karmas in this final life. They are self-enlightened.
• Cyclical Time and Tirthankaras: Jainism believes in cyclical time (Utsarpini and Avasharpini) divided into six parts called "Aras." Tirthankaras appear only in the third and fourth Aras of each half-cycle, and there are always 24 Tirthankaras in total.
• Reason for Tirthankara as Ishwar: The full manifestation of infinite attributes and the preaching of the Mokshamarga are the reasons why Tirthankaras are considered Ishwar. The characteristic of never having been bound (in the past) is not considered essential for their concept of Ishwar.
• Rejection of Creationism: Jainism views the universe as beginningless and endless, finding the concept of a creator at a specific point in time unappealing. They find the concept of Ishwar as the creator to be flawed.

Buddhist Philosophy's View on Ishwar (Page 2-3):

• Similar to Jainism: The Buddhist view is not different from the Jain view.
• Buddha as Ishwar: The Buddha, who renounced the world, practiced meditation, conquered internal enemies (Māra), attained enlightenment (Sambodhi), and set the Wheel of Dharma in motion, is considered Ishwar by Buddhists.
• Rejection of a World-Creating Ishwar: Buddhists also reject the idea of a permanently liberated, world-creating Ishwar, strongly refuting such beliefs.
• Buddha as a Great Person: The Buddha is seen as a great person born as a human, who achieved enlightenment through practice and showed the path to liberation from suffering.
• Multiple Buddhas: There have been and will be many Buddhas.
  • Theravada View: According to Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha was a human being, not a supramundane being. He lived a normal human life, ate, grew up, married, etc. His body was human-like. Through practice, he conquered Māra, purified his mind, attained enlightenment, set the Dharma Wheel in motion, and entered Nirvana. The powers he attained were achievable by any human through practice. His powers did not make him non-human or supramundane. This aligns with the concept of a Jivanmukta preacher.
  • Mahayana View: Mahayana Buddhism elevated the Buddha to a supramundane status.
    • Body of the Buddha: The physical body (Rupakaya) and the body of enjoyment (Sambhogakaya) of the Buddha are described as pure, free from the defects of birth, aging, death, and disease. It's a divine, supramundane body that never truly descends to the human realm but resides in the divine realms with infinite lifespan.
    • Buddhas' Compassion: After attaining enlightenment, Buddhas remain in the world for eons, not entering Parinirvana, to benefit beings. Therefore, their Rupakaya must be capable of lasting for eons to fulfill their vows of welfare for all beings. This divine Rupakaya is the Sambhogakaya, obtained as a result of meritorious deeds.
    • Buddha-fields: Buddhas have their own divine realms called Buddha-fields. Buddhas teach Mahayana doctrines to Arhats and Bodhisattvas born in these fields through their Sambhogakaya. The Sambhogakaya is considered appropriate for Mahayana teachings.
    • Theravada vs. Mahayana Rupakaya: Theravada views the Buddha's Rupakaya as human, pure, and mundane, while Mahayana considers it divine, pure, and supramundane.
    • Nirmanakaya: Mahayana believes the Buddha's Rupakaya exists only in Buddha-fields. Therefore, the Buddhas who appeared in the human world were Nirmanakayas (manifestations). Buddhas send Nirmanakayas to human realms to teach Hinayana doctrines to practitioners and disciples. The Nirmanakaya is a magical Rupakaya, as it doesn't contain the real Buddha-mind (i.e., the Buddha himself). It also doesn't have a magical mind, as Buddhist philosophy doesn't accept a manufactured mind. The real Buddha-mind directs the Nirmanakaya. The Buddha-mind in the Sambhogakaya regulates the Nirmanakaya. This mind performs all actions according to the Buddha's command. One Sambhogakaya can create multiple Nirmanakayas.
• Mahayana Buddhas and Non-Creation: Even though Mahayana Buddhas are supramundane and divine, they are not world-creators. They are solely preachers of the path to liberation from suffering, benefiting and uplifting beings through their teachings. The creation of Nirmanakayas is also for the purpose of delivering teachings. Preaching is their primary function.

Samkhya Philosophy's Atheism (Page 3-7):

• Samkhya is Atheistic: Samkhya philosophy is atheistic, meaning it rejects the existence of a permanently liberated, world-creating Ishwar.
• No Ishwar in Samkhya Creation: In Samkhya, Ishwar is not the creator of the world. The world originates from Prakriti (primordial matter). Prakriti is the material cause, and Adharma (the moral and immoral actions of beings) is the instrumental cause. Prakriti creates the diverse world according to the Adharma of beings for their enjoyment and liberation.
• Rejection of Ishwar as Prima Causality: At the beginning of creation, the Samkhya Karika (verse 57), commented on by Vācaspati, states that there is no proof to necessitate Ishwar in the process of creation.
• Arguments Against a Creator God:
  • Prakriti's Inadequacy: Supporters of a creator God argue that unconscious and ignorant Prakriti cannot create a complex world. They also argue that embodied souls, ignorant of Prakriti's nature, cannot guide it. Therefore, an omniscient, eternal Ishwar is necessary to guide Prakriti's creative activity.
  • Vācaspati's Counter-Argument (Gown's Example): Vācaspati counters by saying that just as a cow's udder produces milk for its calf's nourishment without a conscious effort, Prakriti creates for the Purusha's enjoyment and liberation.
  • Ishwar's Purpose: If Ishwar is considered the guide of Prakriti, what is the purpose of its activity? Intelligent beings act out of self-interest or compassion. Ishwar, being perfect, cannot have self-interest. Compassion is also not possible because before creation, there was no suffering (as beings, their bodies, senses, and painful objects did not yet exist). Attributing compassion after seeing suffering leads to a logical fallacy of infinite regress (a cycle of compassion creating creation and creation causing suffering, which then causes compassion).
  • The Problem of Inequality: If Ishwar creates out of compassion, why doesn't it create everyone happy? Why a diverse and unequal creation?
  • Karmic Law: The diversity of the world is due to the diversity of beings' actions (Adharma and Dharma). Ishwar is not needed as the controller of actions, as actions automatically yield their fruits.
  • Prakriti's Nature: Prakriti is unconscious; it doesn't create out of self-interest or compassion. It transforms by its own nature into intelligence (Buddhi), ego (Ahamkara), etc. Prakriti is the material cause, and the Adharma of beings is the instrumental cause. Therefore, Ishwar is not needed for the creative process.
• Yuktidīpikā's Critique: The ancient commentary Yuktidīpikā presents the argument for a creator Ishwar as a purvapaksha (prima facie argument) and then refutes it according to Samkhya doctrine.
  • Argument from Design: The argument is that every complex work is done by a highly intelligent person, just as palaces and airplanes are made by architects. Similarly, the creation of elements, senses, and worlds must be by Ishwar.
  • Argument from Causality: The connection between conscious and unconscious entities is established by the conscious. Just as a bull and a cart are connected by a driver, the body and the embodied soul are connected by a conscious entity – Ishwar.
  • Refutation by Yuktidīpikā:
    • Uncertainty of Analogy: It's doubtful whether the creation of the world is like a product of a conscious being or an extremely intelligent Ishwar. Therefore, Ishwar's existence cannot be proven by this inference.
    • Prakriti's Activity: Prakriti's activity doesn't happen without intelligence because the Samkhya tradition believes intelligence arises from Prakriti itself. Prakriti first manifests intelligence, and then creates the world intelligently, without needing Ishwar.
    • Ishwar's Omnipotence: If Ishwar is omnipotent, it can manifest intelligence without Prakriti. However, the argument for Ishwar's intelligence is flawed due to the lack of a precedent (drishtanta). There is no instance of intelligence arising spontaneously in a conscious entity. Thus, Ishwar's intelligence cannot be established.
    • Ishwar's Creation of Dharma and Adharma: If Ishwar is the creator of all worldly substances, then Dharma and Adharma would also be Ishwar-created. This leads to a contradiction: Ishwar creates the world for the benefit of others, so it should not cause suffering. Therefore, it should prevent Adharma and create only Dharma. If Dharma and Adharma are considered natural, Ishwar's omnipotence is violated. Thus, Ishwar's existence cannot be proven.
    • Beginningless Nature of the World: The scriptures support the beginningless nature of the world ("Yathapurvam Avatvat"). Since the soul's Adrishta (unseen merit/demerit) already exists, and the world is beginningless, there is no necessity for an Ishwar-creator.
  • Refutation of the Causality Argument: The argument that the connection between conscious and unconscious entities requires a conscious being leads to an infinite regress. If the cause-and-effect relationship between Ishwar and its creation is also considered conscious, then Ishwar would need another Ishwar, leading to an unending chain.
• Samkhya Sutra's Denial: The author of Samkhya Sutras strongly refutes Ishwar, stating that there is no proof to establish its existence. Samkhya, adhering to the principle of "Prameyā-siddhi" (realization of the knowable), believes that if a knowable exists, it must be grasped by some proof. Therefore, if Ishwar is not proven by any proof, it means Ishwar does not exist.
• Ishwar as Bound or Free: The Sutra argues that if Ishwar exists, it must be either bound or liberated; no third option is possible. Ishwar cannot be bound (afflicted), as that would make it ordinary, lacking the power to create a wondrous world. If Ishwar is liberated (free from afflictions), it lacks ego and passions, making it incapable of being the creator.
• Interpretation of Scriptural Statements: What about scriptural statements calling Ishwar omniscient and the creator? Such statements refer to Siddha Purushas (accomplished beings), not a permanent Ishwar. These Siddha Purushas are souls absorbed in Prakriti. By worshipping Prakriti in a previous cycle, men become absorbed in Prakriti and at the beginning of a new cycle, become primal beings who know all things properly and have the power to do all things. These are impermanent Ishwars, not permanent ones.
• Natural Processes: The Samkhya argument uses examples of natural processes like milk turning into curd, seeds sprouting, etc., which occur naturally without external intervention, only requiring contact with elements like air or water. Similarly, Prakriti evolves into Mahat (intellect) and other principles by its own nature, needing only the proximity of Purushas endowed with Dharma and Adharma to begin creation.
• Karma as Sufficient: If Ishwar is considered the director of creation, it cannot deliver fruits independently of karma. Therefore, karma itself must be accepted, as it naturally yields its fruits.
• Ishwar's Nature: Ishwar's activity is motivated by self-interest or passion, which is not possible for a perfect and passionless being.
• Vijñānabhikṣu's Reinterpretation: Vijñānabhikṣu, in his Samkhya Pravachana Bhashya, attempted to introduce a new concept of Ishwar influenced by Vedanta. He states that Ishwar is the "Causal Brahman" (Kāraṇa Brahman) qualified by its own power-Prakriti. This Purusha, with Prakriti as its inherent qualification, becomes the instrumental cause of the world. This Purusha is eternal. From it, Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas evolve. The soul (Jiva) is also an aspect of this Purusha, and so is Prakriti. This Purusha is the efficient cause of the development of both. However, Samkhya does not accept a supreme principle (Brahman) above Purusha and Prakriti. This Purusha in the form of Chitsāmānya is Brahman. Samkhya would consider this merely a conceptualization.
• Sidha Purushas as Ishwar: Samkhya considers Siddha Purushas as Ishwar because they possess omniscience and other powers. If Siddha Purushas are accepted as Ishwar, then Samkhya would have no objection to identifying Jivanmukta preachers as Ishwar. Jivanmukta preachers are also considered Ishwar in an impermanent sense because they became liberated through practice, having been bound before and now liberated; they were not Ishwar before, but now they are. Jivanmukta preachers possess all-encompassing powers like omniscience and do not undergo rebirth. They act as guides on the path to liberation, benefiting beings. Therefore, Samkhya would not oppose accepting Jivanmukta preachers as Ishwar. Jivanmukta preachers are superior to Siddha Purushas in many ways. If Siddha Purushas are called Ishwars, then Jivanmukta preachers should be called Paramēśvaras. However, Jivanmukta preachers are not permanently liberated world-creators. Samkhya fundamentally rejects the existence of a permanently liberated, world-creating Ishwar. The book will later show how Patanjali, the author of Yoga Sutras, considers the Jivanmukta preacher as Ishwar.

Yoga Philosophy's View on Ishwar (Page 7-17):

• Ishwar as a Special Purusha: Patanjali's Yoga Sutras have three verses concerning Ishwar. The text aims to understand these verses based on Patanjali's own concepts rather than later commentators.
• Verse 1.24: Ishwar Defined: "Iśvaraḥ puruṣaviśeṣa īśvaraḥ" (Patanjali Yoga Sutra 1.24). Ishwar is a special Purusha, untouched by afflictions (Klesha), karma, fruition (Vipaka), and inner impressions (Ashaya).
  • Interpretation: Based on other Yoga Sutras, this verse explains that a yogi who, during Sampragnata Yoga, desires no specific achievement, attains unwavering and complete discriminative discernment, leading to Dharmamegha Samadhi. This samadhi destroys afflictions and karmas. Thus, one who attains Dharmamegha Samadhi becomes eternally free from afflictions and karmas. Vyasa, the commentator, calls this person a Jivanmukta.
  • Afflictions and Karma: Patanjali states that afflictions are the root cause of karma-accumulation. As long as the root (afflictions) exists, fruition exists. This implies that without afflictions, there can be no karma-accumulation or fruition.
  • Freedom from Klesha, Karma, Vipaka, Ashaya: Upon attaining Dharmamegha Samadhi, the discerning one is liberated from afflictions and karmas. Liberation from afflictions leads to liberation from fruition and impressions. Therefore, one who has attained Dharmamegha Samadhi is untouched by Klesha, karma, fruition, and impressions, and can rightly be called a special Purusha. Patanjali refers to this discerning one as Ishwar.
• Verse 1.25: Ishwar as the Source of All-Knowledge: "Tatra niratiśayaṁ sarvajñabījam" (PYS 1.25). In Ishwar resides the supreme, unsurpassable seed of all-knowledge.
  • Infinite Knowledge vs. All-Knowledge: This verse clarifies the confusion between infinite knowledge and all-knowledge. They are not the same.
  • Support from Other Sutras: To understand this, one must refer to other helpful sutras.
  • Liberation from Coverings: Patanjali states that upon attaining Dharmamegha Samadhi, afflictions and karmas are destroyed, along with all coverings and impurities, leading to infinite knowledge. Infinite knowledge is simply unhindered knowledge – knowledge free from obstacles.
  • Infinite Knowledge is Not All-Knowledge: Infinite knowledge is not the same as all-knowledge. Patanjali states that the infinitude of knowledge attained by the discerning one who achieves Dharmamegha Samadhi is far greater than all worldly objects collected at once. It's incorrect to speak of the infinitude of knowledge based on the number of knowable objects, as worldly objects are finite. The infinitude of knowledge is not due to knowing all objects but is independent of objects.
  • The Error of Equating Infinite Knowledge with All-Knowledge: Those who claim knowledge is infinite because it knows all objects make a mistake. Patanjali doesn't emphasize all-knowledge. The discerning one who attains infinite knowledge gains the power to know everything, but doesn't actually know everything. This happens only when one practices restraint (Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi) on time and its sequence. The power to know everything is a Siddhi (accomplishment) and is dependent on specific conditions. If infinite knowledge automatically led to all-knowledge, it would be considered identical with all-knowledge, not its cause.
  • Tarakajñāna: Infinite knowledge (Vivekajña) is the cause (seed) of all-knowledge. Tarakajñāna is another name for all-knowledge, and Patanjali clearly states it is born of discrimination. The fact that Tarakajñāna is placed among the Siddhis clearly shows it is merely an accomplishment.
  • Ishwar as the Cause of All-Knowledge: Equating infinite knowledge with the cause of all-knowledge is akin to stating that all-knowledge is discriminative knowledge. The reason for considering infinite knowledge as the cause of all-knowledge is that upon attaining infinite knowledge, all-knowledge doesn't automatically arise. The yogi gains the power to know everything, but doesn't actually know all things. This happens only when they practice specific restraints. This implies that the power to know everything is conditional.
  • Dharmamegha Samadhi: Upon attaining Dharmamegha Samadhi, afflictions and karmas are completely destroyed, and knowledge becomes infinite because all coverings and impurities are removed. Afflictions and karmas are the coverings and impurities. The yogi who attains this infinite knowledge gains the power to know everything, but this power only functions when they practice a specific type of restraint.
  • The Discerned One is Ishwar: The discerning one who benefits from Dharmamegha Samadhi is Ishwar. Ishwar is not necessarily all-knowing; it becomes all-knowing only when it practices that restraint. In other words, it has the power to know everything, but this power operates only under certain conditions. The power to know everything is a Siddhi resulting from attaining infinite knowledge. Therefore, Ishwar has infinite knowledge but not necessarily all-knowledge. The Sutrakara and Bhashyakara do not consider omniscience essential before Kevalya (liberation). Vyasa explicitly states that the discerning one attains discriminative Tarakajñāna or not, they still achieve Kevalya.
• Verse 1.26: Ishwar as the Guru of the Ancients: "Pūrveṣām api guruḥ kālenānavacchēdāt" (PYS 1.26). Ishwar is the guru of even the ancients because it is not limited by time, is free from the bonds of time, and is beyond time.
  • Guru as Preacher: The term "guru" here signifies Ishwar's important role as a preacher.
  • Shared Wisdom: The phrase "Pūrveṣām api guruḥ" reminds us of the verse from the Dakshinamurti Stotra ("Vrddhah shishyam...") which expresses a universal idea found in Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions.
  • Qualities of a Guru: The qualities that make Ishwar a spiritual guru even to elders are explained in the latter part of the sutra: "kālena anavachchēdāt" (unlimited by time).
  • Understanding "Unbounded by Time": This idea can be understood with the help of another sutra. Patanjali states that upon attaining Dharmamegha Samadhi, the sequence of transformation of qualities (Gunas) in the yogi who has destroyed afflictions and karmas ends. The Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas) stop transforming into mind, senses, body, etc. Their cycle of rebirth ends. Their cycle of existence (Samsara) is complete. They have attained final liberation and have transcended time. They are no longer bound by time. This equates "kālena anavachchēdāt" with "guṇānāṁ parināmakramasamāptiḥ" (4.32).
  • Meaning of the Sutra: Therefore, the meaning of the sutra becomes: Ishwar, having risen above the cycle of birth and death (by destroying afflictions and karmas), has become the spiritual guru even of those who are still trapped in this cycle.
  • Time as Sequence: This equation suggests that for Patanjali, time is merely a sequence of transformations. That which is not affected by the sequence of transformations is also not affected by time and is not limited by it.
  • Freedom from Afflictions: Temporal limitation or cessation of transformation is the fruit of being free from afflictions (Vitaraagata). Freedom from afflictions is supreme spirituality. Therefore, one who has attained supreme spirituality can become a spiritual guru even to elders. Those who have crossed the ocean of existence can show others how to cross it. Those who have stopped the cycle of birth and death can teach others how to do the same. No one else can be a preacher.
  • Patanjali's Ishwar is the Jivanmukta: According to this interpretation, Patanjali's Ishwar is none other than the discerning person who has attained Dharmamegha Samadhi, infinite knowledge, the power to know everything, and liberation from rebirth. As seen, this discerning person is untouched by afflictions, karmas, fruition, and impressions. Thus, Patanjali uses the term "Ishwar" to refer to the person whom Vyasa calls a Jivanmukta. The book reiterates that, based on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, no further interpretation is warranted. According to Patanjali, Ishwar is neither eternally liberated nor a world-creator. Ishwar is simply the Jivanmukta, liberated from afflictions through practice, who shows the path to liberation from afflictions and thus from suffering for the sake of beings.
• Vyasa's Commentary: Following Vyasa's commentary, Ishwar's depiction is as follows: Afflictions and other impurities reside in the mind, but they are attributed to Purusha because Purusha is the enjoyer of their fruits. (For example, victory and defeat belong to the warrior but are attributed to the king because the king enjoys the results.) Ishwar is that which has no connection with such enjoyment. Thus, Ishwar is distinct from both Purushas.
• Ishwar vs. Kevalin: There are many Kevalins (liberated souls) who have attained Kevalya. They have broken the bonds and become free. Ishwar, however, has never had a connection with bondage, neither in the past nor in the future. A Kevalin had prior bondage, but it is not so for Ishwar. "Ishwar is always liberated, eternally liberated." Thus, Ishwar is distinct from a Kevalin.
• Ishwar's Eternal Excellence: Ishwar's excellence is eternal and constant. Ishwar is omniscient in all three times. This means Ishwar possesses pure, unhindered consciousness (Buddhi) in all three times. The proof of Ishwar's omniscience is the scriptures. On what basis are scriptures considered proof? Because they are all creations. This leads to a mutual dependence and circular reasoning issue: the proof of the omniscient rests on scriptures, and the validity of scriptures rests on Ishwar's omnipotence. However, this mutual dependence is not a flaw because the relationship between scriptures and omniscience is beginningless, like the relationship between a seed and a sprout.
• Incomparable Excellence: Ishwar's excellence is incomparable and without gradation. No one else's excellence surpasses it. That which is the pinnacle of excellence is Ishwar. No other excellence is like it. If two excellences were equal, they would have conflicting desires simultaneously (one wishing for something new, the other for something old). This would mean one excellence is inferior, and thus not equal. Therefore, Ishwar is the one whose excellence is incomparable and without gradation. This implies Ishwar is singular.
• Gradation of Knowledge: In the world, one person has some knowledge, another has more, and a third has even more. This graded knowledge is the seed (cause, basis) of omniscience, because where there is gradation, there is also a pinnacle. Gradation establishes the pinnacle. The person in whom knowledge reaches its pinnacle is called omniscient. Ishwar is indeed omniscient.
• Ishwar's Purpose: Welfare of Beings: The omniscient Ishwar has no self-interest to fulfill. Its purpose is the welfare or upliftment of beings. The universal resolve of Ishwar is to liberate beings by imparting knowledge and Dharma.
• Ishwar as Guru: Ishwar is the guru of even the elders because it is not limited by time. It is beyond time.
• Ishwar's Nature: Ishwar is eternal, omniscient in all three times. This means Ishwar possesses pure, unhindered consciousness in all three times.
• Ishwar's Intentions: Ishwar's intentions are for the welfare of beings. The Ishwar's resolve is to liberate beings by imparting knowledge and Dharma.
• Ishwar's Qualities: Ishwar has the following qualities: knowledge, bliss, desire, effort, and Dharma. It lacks suffering, aversion, Adharma, and impressions. This makes Ishwar a special type of soul, not a different substance.
• Ishwar's Role: Ishwar is the source of knowledge, the controller of actions, and the one who guides beings towards their desired results. Ishwar doesn't force anyone to act. Just as a physician recommends medicine, we say the physician cured the disease. Similarly, Ishwar shows the remedy for diseases like passion, and we say Ishwar cured the disease, gave the fruit, or showed grace. In this sense, Ishwar is the facilitator of actions or the granter of results. Ishwar makes the efforts and practices of beings successful by imparting knowledge of the appropriate actions for desired fruits. Without this knowledge, beings would not attain their desired fruits.
• Jivanmukta as Ishwar: The ultimate goal in philosophies is liberation (Mukti). Everyone desires liberation (freedom from suffering). A Jivanmukta, who has attained liberation and knows the path, provides this knowledge. Gautama used the word Ishwar for the Jivanmukta, meaning the Jivanmukta preacher is his Ishwar.
• Verse Interpretation: The common interpretation of the verse "Ishwar-prerito gacchet svarga va śvabhraṁ eva va..." (A ignorant being, driven by Ishwar, goes to heaven or hell. This ignorant being is not the master of its own happiness or sorrow) is that Ishwar's will is all-powerful, and our happiness and sorrow depend on it, not our efforts. However, the true meaning is that the being's ignorance of which actions lead to happiness or sorrow is crucial. Ishwar provides this knowledge. This knowledge then leads beings to perform actions that result in happiness or sorrow.
• Vatsyayana's View: Vātsyāyana, in his Nyaya Bhashya, clarifies Ishwar's nature. Ishwar is a soul, not a separate substance. Ishwar is like other souls but distinct in its qualities. While other souls have false knowledge, Adharma, and negligence, Ishwar has destroyed these. Thus, Ishwar possesses right knowledge, Dharma, and Samadhi, which ordinary souls lack. Ishwar has supernatural powers like anima, etc., as the fruit of its Dharma and Samadhi, which other souls lack. Thus, Ishwar is distinct from worldly souls. Though Vātsyāyana doesn't explicitly differentiate Ishwar from liberated souls (Videhamukta), it's implied. Liberated souls lack specific self-qualities, while Ishwar possesses knowledge, Dharma, Samadhi, and powers. Thus, Ishwar is a soul, not a different category from worldly and liberated souls. The soul that destroys false knowledge, Adharma, and negligence, and attains right knowledge, Dharma, and Samadhi, is Ishwar according to Vātsyāyana. This implies Ishwar is not eternally liberated, and every soul has the potential to become Ishwar. Vātsyāyana's description of Ishwar is that of a discerning, affliction-free Jivanmukta.
• Prof. Ingalls' Confusion: Prof. Ingalls finds Vātsyāyana's remarks confusing because he is influenced by later Nyaya-Vaiseṣika concepts of Ishwar. His interpretation of the passages is often incorrect due to later commentators' interpretations.
• Vātsyāyana's Interpretation of Karma and Ishwar: Vātsyāyana's passages describe Ishwar as having a special Dharma, acquired through previous good deeds. This Dharma leads to the fruition of accumulated karmas and the creation of yogic bodies. This desire for creating yogic bodies is unwavering and is the fruit of Ishwar's past deeds. This suggests Ishwar is a Jivanmukta who takes on multiple yogic bodies in his last life to exhaust all accumulated karmas.
• Ishwar as Aptakama: Ishwar is reliable and can be trusted as a guide, like a father guides his children. This analogy is limited to guidance, not creation or partaking of essence. Ishwar's reliability comes from destroying false knowledge, Adharma, and negligence, and attaining true knowledge, Dharma, and Samadhi.
• Ishwar's Omniscience: Vātsyāyana accepts Ishwar as omniscient, but the meaning of "omniscient" varies contextually. In the context of karma and its results, it means knowing the fixed relationship between actions and their fruits, and the path to liberation.
• Prashastapada's Introduction of Ishwar: The concept of an eternally liberated, world-creating Maheshvara, along with the ideas of creation and dissolution, first appears in Prashastapada's Padarthadharma Sangraha (late 6th century CE). Maheshvara desires to create the world for beings to enjoy the fruits of their karma. This leads to the origination of atomic motion and the subsequent creation of the universe. Brahma, born from a cosmic egg, is appointed by Maheshvara to create beings. Brahma, endowed with knowledge, dispassion, and power, creates various beings according to their karma. When Brahma's time ends, Maheshvara desires dissolution, and the universe dissolves into atoms. Prashastapada's concept of Maheshvara, Brahma, creation, and dissolution is largely borrowed from Puranic traditions, especially Shaiva Puranas.
• Later Nyaya-Vaiseṣika: Later Nyaya-Vaiseṣika texts attribute Brahma's role to Ishwar. Ishwar knows the fruition of karma and awards results accordingly. They attribute knowledge and desire to Ishwar.
• Uddyotakara's Defense of Ishwar: Uddyotakara's Nyaya Vartika systematically presents the argument for Ishwar as the efficient cause of the world, with atoms as the material cause. Ishwar produces all actions from atoms, awarding fruits according to karma. This is considered Ishwar's grace. Ishwar's excellence is eternal and not a result of Dharma. Ishwar possesses six qualities: number, magnitude, separateness, conjunction, disjunction, and intelligence. Uddyotakara also mentions Ishwar's pure and unhindered desire. Ishwar has no body.
  • Necessity of Ishwar: Uddyotakara argues that Adharma and Dharma, being unconscious, cannot independently initiate actions. Karma and the instrument (Prakriti) are insufficient. The creator is essential for the cause-and-effect relationship. Souls are ignorant and cannot guide atoms. Therefore, an intelligent, omniscient Ishwar is needed. Ishwar is the origin of atomic motion and the fruition of Adrishta.
  • Arguments Against Ishwar: Objections include that if Ishwar is the creator, either it acts with assistance (making it not the ultimate creator) or without assistance (making human karma futile).
  • Uddyotakara's Rebuttals: Ishwar's creation is not independent; it is sequential, not simultaneous. Ishwar creates according to the Adharma and Dharma of souls. Ishwar's purpose is not self-interest but the welfare of beings. Ishwar's creation is its nature.
• Jayanta Bhatta's Arguments: Jayanta Bhatta, in Nyaya Manjari, argues for Ishwar's existence from the design argument (complex effects imply a designer), scriptural authority, and the limitations of human knowledge and action. He states that Ishwar is the ultimate cause of all things and possesses infinite knowledge. He also argues that Ishwar is the first teacher of arts and sciences. Jayanta Bhatta accepts Ishwar's bliss and considers Ishwar to be distinct from liberated souls but possessing similar qualities.
• Udayanacharya's Arguments: Udayanacharya, in Nyaya Kusumanjali, provides comprehensive arguments for Ishwar's existence:
  • Argument from Design: Earth and other products are effects because they are perishable and composed of parts. Since they are effects, they must have a cause. Ishwar is the cause.
  • Argument from Atomic Motion: In dissolution, atoms have motion but not the organizing force for creation. Ishwar provides this organizing force and brings about the union of atoms.
  • Argument from Gravity: Gravitational objects are kept in place by a conscious effort. Ishwar, as the conscious entity holding the universe together, is the ultimate sustainer.
  • Argument from Dissolution and Creation: Just as actions are caused by an agent, so is dissolution. Ishwar is the agent of dissolution and creation.
  • Argument from Language: Ishwar is the ultimate source of language and meaning, establishing the connection between words and their meanings.
  • Argument from Arts and Sciences: Ishwar is the original propagator and teacher of arts and sciences.
  • Argument from Vedas: The Vedas are authoritative because they are the word of Ishwar, who is omniscient and free from defects.
  • Argument from Numerical Differences in Atoms: The difference in the size of atoms, binuclei, and trinuclei requires a conscious being to explain the numerical aspect and the resulting properties.
• Critiques by Buddhist and Jain Philosophers: Dignāga, Dharmakīrti, Śāntarakṣita, Kalyāṇarakṣita, Jñānaśrīmitra (Buddhists), and Haribhadra, Hemacandra, Guṇaratnasūri, Malliṣeṇasūri (Jains) have all critiqued the Nyaya-Vaiseṣika concept of Ishwar. Their arguments often focus on:
  • Natural Phenomena: Wild grass and trees grow naturally without a creator, proving that not all effects require a conscious cause.
  • Causality without a Visible Agent: The existence of an invisible creator cannot be assumed simply because the cause is not visible. This leads to circular reasoning.
  • The Problem of Universals and Particulars: Arguments about universals and particulars are also used to refute Ishwar.
  • Contradiction with Scriptural Statements: Some scriptural statements are interpreted as denying Ishwar's role as a creator.
  • Lack of Instruments: Ishwar, being bodiless, lacks the instruments necessary for creation, like a potter has a wheel and clay.
  • Impersonal Nature: Ishwar's inactivity, like that of space, makes it incapable of creation.
  • Uniqueness of Ishwar: Ishwar's oneness is argued against by the existence of multiple intelligent beings capable of creation.
  • Purpose of Creation: Ishwar's purpose for creation is questioned – it cannot be for self-interest, joy, or displaying power.
  • The "Is-Ought" Problem: If Ishwar's nature is to create, it should always create, implying no possibility of dissolution.
  • The "Uncaused Cause" Dilemma: The concept of an uncaused cause leads to logical problems.

Mimāṁsā Philosophy's Atheism (Page 103-105):

• Atheistic Nature: Mimāṁsā philosophy is inherently atheistic, rejecting the need for an omniscient, world-creating Ishwar.
• Beginningless World: Mimāṁsā considers the world to be beginningless and endless, with no cycle of creation and dissolution. Therefore, a creator or dissolver Ishwar is unnecessary.
• Rejection of Omniscience: Mimāṁsā does not accept omniscience, including yogic perception.
• Vedas as Eternal and Authorless: Mimāṁsā's fundamental tenet is that the Vedas are eternal, beginningless, and authorless (Apaurusheya). No one, including Ishwar, can directly know Dharma; it can only be known through the Vedas.
• Karma as the Means to Results: The fruits of actions are obtained through Vedic rituals (Yajña), not through Ishwar's intervention. Jaimini's Mimāṁsā does not include Ishwar as a dispenser of karmic fruits.
• Later Mimāṁsā and Ishwar: While ancient Mimāṁsā is atheistic, later Mimāṁsā, influenced by Puranic and Shaivite traditions, began to accept Ishwar in some form.
  • Influence of Polytheism and Ritual: The acceptance of various deities in Vedic hymns and the practice of pleasing them through offerings (milk, ghee, grains, animals) influenced later Mimāṁsā. Initially, deities were considered primary, then the ritual (Yajña) itself became the dispenser of fruits.
  • Ishwar as Dispenser of Fruits: Later Mimāṁsakas accepted Ishwar as the dispenser of fruits of karma and as a bestower of grace, drawing upon Vedic verses like "Sat vipra na dundha vanthi" (Wise ones speak of Him in many ways).
  • Comparison with Advaita Vedanta: While later Mimāṁsakas accepted Ishwar as a grantor of fruits and an object of worship, they maintained that the Vedas hold a higher position than Ishwar. Ishwar was not considered the creator of the world or the compiler of Vedas.
  • Kumārila Bhatta's Ambivalence: Kumārila Bhatta, despite refuting Ishwar in his Slokavartika, praises Shiva in his auspicious verses, suggesting an influence from later Shaivite traditions.
  • Mimāṁsā's Acceptance: Later Mimāṁsakas accepted Ishwar as a grantor of fruits, an object of worship, and a subject of devotion. They composed works like "Seshwara Mimamsa" to integrate Ishwar with their philosophy.

Vedanta Philosophy's View on Ishwar (Page 105-116):

• Multiple Commentaries: Vedanta has numerous commentators on the Brahma Sutras, including Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhva, and Vallabha. While their views on Ishwar differ, most establish Ishwar.
• Acharya Shankara and Ishwar (Advaita Vedanta):
  • Brahman as Ultimate Reality: For Shankara, only Brahman is ultimately real. The universe, individual souls (Jiva), and Ishwar have only practical (Vyavaharika) reality.
  • Nirguna Brahman: The ultimate Brahman is Nirguna (without attributes). It is Sat-Chit-Ananda (Existence-Consciousness-Bliss) and eternally unchanging.
  • Ishwar as Saguna Brahman: When Brahman is conditioned by Maya (illusion), it becomes Ishwar. Ishwar is Saguna Brahman (with attributes). Maya is Ishwar's power.
  • Ishwar as Creator, Sustainer, Destroyer: Ishwar is the cause of the world's creation, sustenance, and dissolution. Ishwar is the creator, sustainer, controller, and destroyer. Ishwar is omniscient and omnipotent.
  • Ishwar's Perfection and Lila: Ishwar's desires are all fulfilled, and Ishwar is Purnakama (fully accomplished). To attribute a purpose to Ishwar's creation would diminish its Purnakama nature. Therefore, Ishwar's cosmic activity is considered Lila (divine play).
  • Ishwar as Material and Efficient Cause: Ishwar is both the material and instrumental cause of the world. Ishwar, qualified by Maya, is the material cause, while Ishwar's consciousness is the instrumental cause.
  • Maya's Powers: Maya has two powers: Avarana Shakti (veiling power) and Vikshepa Shakti (projecting power). Maya first veils the true nature of Brahman and then superimposes the world onto Brahman. Like a magician making a rope appear as a serpent, Ishwar, through Maya, veils Brahman and superimposes the world. Thus, Brahman is the ultimate reality; the world is merely an appearance.
  • World as Illusion: From the ultimate perspective, the world is an illusion (Bhāsa). This illusion is universal, affecting all beings. Maya, the cause of this illusion, is also universal. Ishwar, the holder of Maya, creates the cosmic web of Maya. Maya is not Ishwar's eternal nature but its free will, which it can abandon. Those who attain supreme knowledge transcend the illusory world and are not affected by Maya. For them, Maya, Ishwar, and the world cease to exist; only pure Nirguna Brahman remains.
  • Ishwar's Role in Karma: Ishwar dispenses the fruits of karma. Karma, being momentary, cannot yield results after a time lag. Ishwar, as the overseer of all beings, ensures the timely fruition of karma. Ishwar is the granter of the fruits of karma and Adharma.
  • Ishwar as the Animator of Actions: According to Shankara, Ishwar is the efficient cause of every action of the soul. Ishwar prompts the soul to perform its actions.
  • Ishwar as the Ultimate Controller: Ishwar controls beings. Beings are dependent on Ishwar for all their actions. Without Ishwar's grace, a being cannot even perform ordinary actions, let alone achieve liberation.
  • Brahman and Ishwar: Ishwar is Brahman conditioned by Maya. The difference is that Maya is considered Ishwar's power and is considered beginningless but not eternal in the same way as Brahman. Those who attain supreme knowledge (Brahmajnana) are liberated. Karma and Bhakti are aids to this knowledge. Bhakti is possible only for Saguna Brahman (Ishwar), not Nirguna Brahman. Therefore, Ishwar's existence is crucial for worship and devotion, leading to purification of the mind and ultimately, Brahmajnana.
• Ramanuja and Ishwar (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta):
  • Rejection of Nirguna Brahman: Ramanuja does not accept Nirguna Brahman; he believes all reality is qualified. "Nirguna" in scriptures means free from evil qualities, not free from all qualities.
  • Three Realities: Ramanuja posits three eternal realities: Chit (souls), Achit (matter/Prakriti), and Ishwar. While Chit and Achit are eternal and independent, they are subordinate to Ishwar, who is the inner controller (Antaryamin). Chit and Achit are considered Ishwar's body. Just as the soul controls the body, Ishwar controls its body of Chit and Achit from within. Ishwar remains unaffected by the defects of Chit and Achit.
  • Ishwar's Nature: Ishwar is one, unique, and possesses infinite auspicious qualities. Ishwar is the material and instrumental cause of the world. Ishwar's purpose in creation is Lila (divine play).
  • Relationship with Souls and Matter: Souls (Chit) and matter (Achit) are Ishwar's aspects or modes. They are distinct from Ishwar but also inseparable (Amṛta-siddhi). Ishwar is the Supreme Being, the controller of all, and the ultimate refuge for liberation.
  • Devotion (Bhakti) and Surrender (Prapatti): Devotion and surrender to Ishwar are the means to liberation. Ishwar's grace is essential for liberation.
  • Ishwar's Forms: Ishwar manifests in five forms: Arca (idols), Vibhava (avatars like Rama), Vyuha (Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna, Aniruddha), Sukshma (the supreme Brahman Vasudeva, possessing six qualities), and Antaryamin (the inner controller of all souls). These forms are borrowed from the Bhagavata tradition.
  • Ishwar's Omnipotence and Grace: Ishwar is the controller of souls. Souls are dependent on Ishwar for all actions, and without Ishwar's grace, liberation is impossible. Ishwar's grace is freely bestowed.
• Madhva and Ishwar (Dvaita Vedanta):
  • Plurality of Realities: Madhva's philosophy is realistic and emphasizes the distinction between Ishwar, souls (Jiva), and matter (Prakriti). These three are distinct and independent.
  • Saguna Brahman as Ishwar: Madhva rejects Nirguna Brahman, asserting that Brahman is Saguna and is Vishnu.
  • Ishwar as Creator and Controller: Ishwar is the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the world, acting according to the karma of beings. Ishwar is eternal, singular, and full of infinite auspicious qualities.
  • Ishwar's Will as Supreme: Madhva's theology places immense emphasis on Ishwar's will. Ishwar's will is supreme and governs all actions, including the devotional practices of souls. This virtually negates the law of karma, making Ishwar's will the ultimate cause of all events, including liberation.
  • Devotion as the Means to Liberation: Devotion and surrender to Ishwar are the primary means to liberation. Ishwar's grace is essential.
• Nimbarka and Ishwar (Dvaitadvaita Vedanta):
  • Inseparability and Difference: Nimbarka's philosophy is characterized by bhedabheda (difference-in-non-difference) or Dvaitadvaita (dual-non-dualism). Brahman (Ishwar) is different from and yet non-different from souls and matter.
  • Saguna Brahman: Brahman is always Saguna, identified with Vishnu. Brahman is the material and instrumental cause of the world.
  • Ishwar's Qualities: Ishwar possesses infinite auspicious qualities, divided into two categories: those necessary for cosmic activities (creation, sustenance, dissolution, control, knowledge) and those that evoke love and joy in devotees (beauty, bliss, compassion).
  • Souls as Aspects of Ishwar: Souls are considered aspects or powers of Ishwar. They are dependent on Ishwar for their existence and liberation.
  • Liberation through Surrender: Surrender (Prapatti) to Ishwar leads to grace, which in turn leads to the direct experience of Ishwar and liberation.
• Bhaskara and Ishwar (Bhedābheda Vedanta):
  • Brahman as Evolving and Saguna: Bhaskara views Brahman as evolving and Saguna. Brahman is Ishwar, possessing various powers that create the world and souls. Ishwar is the cause of creation, sustenance, and dissolution, acting in accordance with the karma of beings. Souls and the world are both different from and identical with Ishwar, as they are its products.
• Vallabha and Ishwar (Shuddhadvaita Vedanta):
  • Brahman as Ishwar and Pure: Vallabha identifies Brahman with Ishwar, who is always qualified by all attributes, including seemingly contradictory ones. Ishwar is both atomic and infinite, one and many.
  • Unmodified Transformation: Souls and the world are considered modifications of Ishwar but not through Maya. Ishwar remains pure and unchanged. This is called "unmodified transformation." Vallabha prefers the terms "manifestation" (Avirbhava) and "withdrawal" (Tirobhava) over creation and destruction.
  • Ishwar as Samavayi Karana: Ishwar is the inherent cause (Samavayi Karana) because it is immanent in souls and the world.
  • Ishwar's Manifestations: Ishwar's manifestation as souls and the world is due to its Lila (play), driven by its desire for enjoyment. Ishwar's qualities, such as power, glory, wealth, knowledge, and bliss, can be veiled, leading to the soul's perceived limitations.
  • Pushtimarga (Path of Grace): Liberation is achieved through devotion and Ishwar's grace (Pushti). Ishwar's grace is considered the primary means to liberation. Avatars are Ishwar's manifestations on earth to bestow grace without requiring any effort from the devotee.

Conclusion:

The book thoroughly examines the diverse perspectives on Ishwar in Indian philosophies, highlighting the fundamental distinction between theistic and non-theistic approaches. It emphasizes Jainism's unique view of the Tirthankara as Ishwar, the Buddha's role in Buddhism, Samkhya's atheism, Yoga's concept of Ishwar as a special, liberated Purusha, and the theistic elaborations in Nyaya-Vaiseṣika and Vedanta schools. The detailed critiques by Buddhist and Jain thinkers of the Nyaya-Vaiseṣika Ishwar model are also presented, underscoring the ongoing philosophical dialogue and evolution of these concepts in ancient India.