Bharatiya Yoga Aur Jain Chintandhara

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Bharatiya Yoga aur Jain Chintandhara" by Dr. Chhaganlal Shastri:

This article explores the philosophical underpinnings of Indian thought, with a particular focus on the integration of Yoga within the Jain philosophical tradition. It posits that Indian intellectual currents have consistently moved from the gross to the subtle, always seeking the ultimate truth of life.

The Eternal Quest for Immortality:

The text begins by contrasting the materialistic philosophy of Charvaka ("Eat ghee after borrowing, live happily as long as you live. What remains of a body that has been burnt?") with the deeper yearning for something beyond transient pleasures. It references the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi, where Maitreyi rejects immense wealth in favor of knowledge about immortality, highlighting the human soul's inherent dissatisfaction with material possessions alone. This inherent quest for the "self" (Atman) is presented as the driving force behind many Indian philosophical schools.

The Genesis of Indian Philosophy: The Problem of Suffering:

The core motivation for most Indian philosophical systems is the pervasive nature of suffering (dukkha). The text cites the Sankhya Karika of Ishvarakrishna as an example, which begins with the acknowledgement of manifold sufferings (adhyatmika, adhibhautika, adhidaivika) and the futility of external means in eradicating them. Sankhya posits that liberation comes from specific knowledge of the Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (primordial matter).

The Ultimate Aim: Moksha (Liberation):

The ultimate goal of all Indian philosophies is Moksha, defined as the complete and permanent cessation of suffering. While the interpretation of Moksha varies—some emphasizing the eradication of suffering and others the attainment of eternal bliss—the underlying principle remains the same. Vedanta identifies Moksha with the manifestation of the soul's inherent bliss (Ananda) through the removal of ignorance, as the Upanishads state, "Brahman is of the nature of bliss." Similarly, Jainism defines Moksha as the complete destruction of karmic coverings that obscure the soul's naturally blissful and unimpeded nature, as stated in the Tattvartha Sutra: "Moksha is the destruction of karma."

The Path of Sadhana (Practice):

To achieve Moksha, various philosophical traditions have outlined systematic paths involving knowledge, contemplation, reflection, meditation, and ethical conduct. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras provide a structured framework that has been widely adopted and adapted by various Indian philosophical schools, reflecting India's syncretic cultural tendency.

Yoga in the Jain Tradition:

The article emphasizes the confluence of Vedic, Jain, and Buddhist thought in shaping Indian intellectual history. All three traditions have produced significant literature on Yoga, a practical path for life's development. While their primary religious languages differed (Pali for Buddhism, Ardhamagadhi and Shauraseni Prakrit for Jainism), their philosophical discourse largely took place in Sanskrit, a language adept at conveying profound concepts concisely.

Key Jain Ascetics on Yoga:

The text identifies four prominent Jain ascetics who wrote extensively on Yoga:

• Haribhadra (8th Century CE): Author of Yogabindu and Yogadrishtisamuchchaya in Sanskrit, and Yogashataka and Yogavishika in Prakrit. He also wrote Shodashakaprakarana, with sections on Yoga.
• Hemachandra (12th Century CE): Author of Yogashastra.
• Shubhachandra: Author of Gyanarnava.
• Yashovijaya (18th Century CE): Author of Adhyatma-Sara and Adhyatmopanishad.

These scholars were profound intellectuals who enriched Jain Yoga literature. Yashovijaya also wrote commentaries on Haribhadra's works and a commentary on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, offering a comparative analysis of Patanjali Yoga and Jain Yoga. The text also mentions lesser-known works like Yogapradipa and Yogasara.

Sources of Jain Philosophical Knowledge:

The primary source for Jain philosophy is the Angas, Upangas, and other scriptures written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. These are supplemented by extensive commentaries in Prakrit and Sanskrit, often employing a mixed Sanskrit-Prakrit style known as Mani-Pravadanyaya. The commentaries on the Shatkhandagama (by Acharya Virasena and Jinadatta) and Kashaya Prabhut (by Acharya Virasena and Jinadatta) are highlighted for their depth and the Mani-Pravadanyaya style.

Haribhadra's Original Contribution to Yoga:

Haribhadra is credited with the first systematic and organized presentation of Yoga within the Jain tradition. While drawing from Jain scriptures, he also introduced original concepts. He integrated the Jain spiritual development process, described through the fourteen Gunasthanas (stages of spiritual progress), with Yoga. He articulated this progression as eight Yogadrishtis (perspectives on Yoga), divided into Oghadrishti (mundane view) and Yogadrishti (yogic view). These eight perspectives are further likened to ascending levels of light, from sparks of fire to the moon and sun, representing the gradual reduction of delusion and the increase of spiritual purity.

Haribhadra also proposed a three-fold classification of Yoga: Ichha Yoga (desire for Yoga), Shastra Yoga (inspiration from scriptures and experienced yogis), and Samarthya Yoga (self-reliance through personal effort and guidance).

Definition and Classification of Yoga by Haribhadra:

In his Yogavishika, Haribhadra defines Yoga as the union or connection that leads to liberation (Moksheṇa Yojanāto Yogaḥ). He further categorizes Yoga into five types: Sthana (posture), Urna (joining the soul with yogic action, chanting mantras), Artha (contemplation of the meaning of mantras and scriptures), Alambana (meditation with an external symbol), and Niralambana (meditation without any external support, focusing on the pure self).

Hemachandra's Perspective on Yoga:

Hemachandra defines Yoga as the cause of Moksha, the foremost of the four Purusharthas (goals of life). He equates Yoga with the Ratnatraya (three jewels): right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct. He elaborates on these in his Yogashastra, covering eight limbs of Yoga, which he maps onto Jain concepts.

Mapping Patanjali's Yoga to Jain Principles:

The article draws parallels between Patanjali's eight limbs of Yoga and corresponding Jain principles:

• Yama (Moral Restraints): Corresponds to Jain Mahavratas (great vows), particularly the five Mahavratas (non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, non-possession).
• Niyama (Observances): Corresponds to Jain Yogasangraha, a set of thirty-two observances mentioned in the Samavayang Sutra, which lead to the refinement of the practitioner's life.
• Asana (Posture): Jain tradition uses the term Sthana for postures, with classifications like Sthana, Nividana, and Shayana. Hemachandra lists various postures, emphasizing that any posture that stabilizes the mind is suitable for meditation.
• Kayaklesha (Body Austerity): This is one of the twelve forms of austerities in Jainism, involving enduring physical discomforts.
• Pranayama (Breath Control): Jain scriptures have less detailed descriptions of Pranayama, possibly considering it an external aspect of Yoga, more central to Hatha Yoga. The article notes that Hemachandra and Shubhachandra's descriptions of Pranayama show influence from the Hatha Yoga tradition.
• Bhav Pranayama: Some Jain scholars interpret Pranayama as Bhav Pranayama, where rechaka (exhalation) signifies the abandonment of external emotions, puraka (inhalation) signifies the fullness of internal emotions, and kumbhaka (retention) signifies stability in a balanced state.
• Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses): This is comparable to Jain Pratisamlinata (withdrawal), which involves the retraction of the body, senses, and mind from unwholesome activities, categorized into four types: Indriya-pratisamlinata (sense control), Manah-pratisamlinata (mind control), Kashaya-pratisamlinata (anger control), and Upakarana-pratisamlinata (control of instruments).
• Dharana (Concentration), Dhyana (Meditation), Samadhi (Absorption): These are crucial in both traditions. Patanjali defines Dharana as binding the mind to a specific place, Dhyana as a continuous flow of consciousness towards the object, and Samadhi as the state where only the object of meditation is perceived, with the meditator's own form seemingly absent.

Dhyana (Meditation) in Jainism:

Jain tradition places immense importance on meditation for inner purification. Lord Mahavir himself is described as a "Dhyana-Yogi." The article notes a shift in modern Jain practice, with more emphasis on external austerities like fasting, potentially leading to the neglect of certain meditation techniques. Hemachandra and Shubhachandra categorize meditation into four types: Pindastha (meditation on gross objects), Padastha (meditation on syllables or sounds), Rupastha (meditation on form), and Rupatita (meditation beyond form). They also discuss Dharma-dhyana (meditation on virtuous principles) and Shukla-dhyana (pure meditation), which are essential for spiritual advancement.

• Dharma-dhyana has four types: Aajn-vichaya (meditation on scriptures), Apaya-vichaya (meditation on the causes of suffering), Vipaka-vichaya (meditation on the fruits of karma), and Samsthan-vichaya (meditation on the structure of the cosmos).
• Shukla-dhyana leads to the destruction of karma and is further divided into four types, based on the nature of thought processes (vitarka and vichara).

Comparison of Jain and Patanjali Yoga:

The text highlights the philosophical nuances in the understanding of Samadhi between Jainism and Patanjali Yoga. Jainism attributes the stages of Samadhi to the gradual shedding of karmic coverings (karmavarana) through Kshaya (complete destruction), Upshama (suppression), and Kshayopashama (partial destruction and suppression). Samadhi attained through Upshama is considered sabija (with seeds of karma), while that attained through Kshaya is nirbija (without seeds). Patanjali's Savitaraka and Nirvitarka Samadhis are compared to Jain Prithaktva-vitarka-savichara and Ekattva-vitarka-avichara Shukla Dhyana respectively, suggesting deep parallels worth further exploration.

Kayoțsarga (Abandonment of Body):

Kayoțsarga is a significant Jain term, meaning the "abandonment" or "release" of the body. It refers to the shedding of physical tension, attachment to the body, and the stillness achieved through a relaxed physical state, conducive to deep meditation. The text mentions various types of Kayoțsarga and specific postures associated with it, as well as the twelve Bhavanas (contemplations) that aid in mental purification and the stabilization of the mind for meditation.

In conclusion, the article underscores the profound and systematic approach to Yoga within Jainism, showcasing its rich philosophical heritage and its intricate relationship with broader Indian yogic traditions. It emphasizes the Jain emphasis on self-effort, karma, and the ultimate goal of liberation through the purification of the soul.