Bharatiya Kala Ke Mukhya Tattva - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Bharatiya Kala ke Mukhya Tattva" by Vasudev S. Agrawal, focusing on the core ideas presented:

The book, "Bharatiya Kala ke Mukhya Tattva" (The Main Elements of Indian Art), by Vasudev S. Agrawal, posits that Indian art is a mirror of India's thought, religion, philosophy, and culture. It serves as a profound explanation of Indian life, revealing how people lived, their emotions, their conception of divinity, their worship practices, and their creations based on the five elements. The vast array of Indian art, found in architecture, sculpture, paintings, bronze statues, pottery, ivory work, wood carving, gem work, gold and silver work, and textiles, permeates every part of the country.

The author emphasizes that Indian art is a continuous, long-term phenomenon to which every region of India has contributed. While various communities have participated in its rich development, the core inspiration and meaning remain predominantly Indian. This Indian artistic influence spread across seas and mountains, taking root in other countries, and much of this material is fortunately preserved today, testifying to the glory of Indian art. The vast geographical expanse from Indonesia to China and Central Asia was influenced by Indian art.

A detailed study of Indian art necessitates its examination in conjunction with Indian religion, philosophy, and culture, the knowledge of which is found in diverse Indian literature such as the Vedas, Puranas, epics, Buddhist Pitakas, and Jain Agamas.

The text then delves into the chronology of Indian art, spanning approximately 5,000 years, starting from the Indus Valley Civilization in the 3rd millennium BCE. A rough chronological framework is presented, outlining various periods and dynasties:

Indus Civilization (c. 2500-1500 BCE)
Vedic Civilization (c. 2000-1000 BCE)
Mahajanapada Era (c. 1200-600 BCE)
Nanda Dynasty Era (c. 600-326 BCE)
Maurya Dynasty (c. 325-184 BCE)
Shunga Dynasty (c. 184-72 BCE)
Kanva Dynasty (c. 72-27 BCE)
Indo-Greeks and Bactrians (c. 250 BCE onwards)
Shaharats and Shakas (c. 1st century BCE - 360 CE)
Satavahana Dynasty (c. 200 BCE - 200 CE)
Shaka-Kushanas (c. 80 BCE - 2nd century CE)
Ikshvaku Dynasty of Andhra (3rd century CE)
Gupta Dynasty (c. 319 CE onwards)
Chalukya Dynasty (c. 6th-12th centuries CE)
Rashtrakuta Dynasty (c. 753-973 CE)
Pallava Dynasty (c. 600-750 CE)
Chola Dynasty (c. 100-1053 CE)
Pandya Dynasty (12th-13th centuries CE)
Hoysala Dynasty (12th-13th centuries CE)
Vijayanagara Dynasty (c. 1336-1565 CE)
Ganga and Keshari Dynasties of Odisha (11th-13th centuries CE)
Pala Dynasty of Magadha and Sena Dynasty of Bengal (c. 750-1150 CE)
Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (750-1050 CE)
Chandella Dynasty (c. 600-1000 CE)
Gahadwala Dynasty (1085-1200 CE)
Solanki Dynasty (c. 765-1200 CE)

Agrawal explains that art movements evolve like waves, influencing subsequent eras before receding. The artistic flow doesn't cease with the fall of dynasties. The period from the Indus Valley to the Nanda era represents the early phase of Indian art. The Maurya period to Harsha's time marks the middle stage and the era of its mature youth, with distinct phases showcasing the sprouting of artistic ideas in different regions. The latter half of this middle period, from the 1st century CE to the 7th century CE (Kanishka to Harsha), is considered the prime period of Indian art, characterized by national-level artistic maturity, widespread acceptance of its external forms and internal meanings, and its influence abroad. During these 700 years, India experienced the peak of artistic, literary, philosophical, and cultural development, leading to the sentiment that "There is no year like India on Earth."

Following Harsha's era is the classical period (700-1200 CE), divided into early and late medieval periods. Throughout this long journey, Indian art has left behind significant works, like a divine entity of beauty moving across all directions, leaving behind diverse sculptural, architectural, and painting traditions. While the story of this art is simple due to its underlying unity, it is also complex due to the varied threads woven into its fabric. Art historians must carefully identify and interpret local, regional, and national contexts, forms, styles, ornamentation, influences, and meanings.

Place of Discovery and Dating: The place of discovery and chronological order are crucial for studying art objects. Information about the provenance is vital for understanding the context. The type and color of stone used in sculptures and architectural fragments also provide clues about their origin. Examples are given of specific stones used in different periods and regions, such as the white sandstone of the Keer-thar hills for the Indus Valley, the pink sandstone from Chunar for Maurya art, and basalt for Pala art.

Dating: The dating of objects is primarily based on inscriptions found on stupas, temples, slabs, or temple bases. In the absence of inscriptions, style serves as an indicator of time. Archaeological excavations provide material like inscriptions, seals, pottery, and toys, which are dated based on their stratigraphic layers. The aim of this external study of art is to understand its historical and cultural background, requiring knowledge of provenance, time, and style.

Meaning and Expression (Artha-Vyanjana): Beyond the external examination of an artwork, the focus shifts to its internal examination and interpretation of meaning. Every artwork is a physical symbol of an inner sentiment. Therefore, a true connoisseur is interested in the expression of feeling or meaning through art. According to Indian aesthetics, art and poetry have four elements: Rasa (aesthetic sentiment), Artha (meaning/subject), Chhanda (meter, for poetry), and Shabda (word, for poetry) or Rupa (form, for art).

Rasa: Rasa is the soul of art, an intrinsic quality that gives enduring value. It is considered fundamental, essential, and divine. The human mind is a sea of emotions, and Rasa arises from the confluence of these feelings. Art and poetry express these diverse human emotions. Artworks evoke feelings in the observer. Artists first internalize a particular Rasa or emotion and then express it through words or form.
Artha: Upon recalling Rasa, the artist chooses the meaning or subject that evokes it. Artha refers to the subject matter in description or depiction. Indian art is rich in the representation of various deities who symbolize divine and material forces. These deities, as described in the Vedas and Puranas, aim to explain the duality of light and darkness, good and evil, immortality and death, often referred to as the eternal conflict between Devas and Asuras. Figures like Buddha and Mahavira, and deities like Indra, Shiva, and Vishnu, symbolize light and truth, while figures like Vritra, Mara, and demons represent darkness. Artha is the true eye of art, and its meaning is inscribed on every artwork. Understanding Artha is essential for grasping the cultural purpose of Indian art and its symbolic nature, including motifs like the Purna Ghat, Swastika, Lotus, Sri Lakshmi, Ashtamangala signs, Garuda, Naga, and Yaksha.
Dvandva (Duality): The universe is described as being created through duality. Even the element of beauty is balanced by harmony and proportion. Thus, rhythm and proportion are essential elements of Indian art. The artist internalizes the prescribed measurements and proportions through meditation.
Rupa or Shabda (Form or Word): The fourth element is bringing emotion to the physical plane, which is Rupa (form) in art and Shabda (word) in poetry. Sculpture, painting, and architecture have different mediums, but they all are tangible forms of emotions. Their language is direct and appeals to the senses. The author quotes Goswami Tulsidas regarding the harmony of words and emotions, and the balance of duality.

Importance of Chitta (Mind/Consciousness): Art serves as the medium connecting inner emotions and external form. Art's purpose is to express inner feelings with maximum beauty, imprinting the impressions of the mind onto physical objects. This connection makes art deeply resonant with the human heart. The mind's content, infused with aesthetic qualities, brings satisfaction to the senses and evokes subtle emotions. A true art connoisseur experiences the lingering fragrance of art and partakes in its nectar-like joy. This mental absorption in beauty is called Samvega.

Indian art possesses an eternal form, whose beauty does not diminish. Its grace resonates repeatedly in the mind. All art is essentially mental craftsmanship, but it is an imitation of divine craftsmanship. The divine inspiration in the artist's heart imbues words, forms, and meanings with divine beauty.

Ornamentation (Alankaran): Indian art is rich in ornamentation. Artists have always shown interest in adorning their creations with various decorative elements. These ornamental motifs are primarily of three types: linear patterns, leaf-and-vine patterns, and fantastical creatures like 'Ihamriga' (mythical animals). While these motifs are inspired by nature, artists have developed them through their imagination. Ornamentation is used as a primary element, to adorn the main subject, or to fill empty spaces, all with the aim of enhancing beauty. Beyond mere decoration, these motifs also served purposes of protection and auspiciousness, often referred to as 'Mangalya Chinha' (auspicious signs). The dual purpose of ornamentation is Shobhana (beauty) and Raksha (protection). The purpose of beauty is evident. Protection signifies freedom from misfortune. According to Indian aesthetics, demons inhabit empty spaces, but auspicious signs bring divine grace and protection. Motifs like the Swastika, Purna Ghat, or Lotus evoke auspicious meanings. These auspicious signs are artistic representations of divine manifestations. The text provides examples of symbolic representations like the elephant (Indra's Airavata), horse (Uchchaihshrava), and cow (sacred in Vedas), relating them to artistic and cultural meanings. The use of vine-like patterns and plant motifs is also highlighted as aesthetically pleasing and symbolically significant, representing the vast life force of nature.

Cultural Life: A significant characteristic of Indian art is its portrayal of cultural life. The lives of both royalty and common people are depicted, with art often serving as a visual commentary on literary descriptions. One can reconstruct the history of Indian life and customs solely from the material of art. Indian attire, hairstyles, jewelry, seating arrangements, etc., are found in paintings and sculptures. Small terracotta figures also contribute to this understanding, depicting common people. The great stupas of Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati are described as encyclopedias of people's lives. Indian art has always accompanied life, reflecting contemporary societal realities.

Religious Life: Major religious movements that have profoundly influenced public life have also inspired art, with their narratives preserved in its tangible forms. In this regard, art often provides more assistance than literature. The text mentions the detailed portrayal of Yakshas and Nagas in the art of Bharhut, Sanchi, and Mathura, and the popular beliefs about Uttar Kuru depicted in Bhaja, Bharhut, and Sanchi. Decorative elements like 'Mithuna' (couples), 'Kalpavriksha' (wish-fulfilling tree), and 'Kalpalata' (wish-fulfilling creeper) are related to stories from the Jatakas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata. The birth of various items like fine fabrics, fruit-shaped vessels filled with honey, mango-shaped vessels with lac resin, ornaments for various body parts, and depictions of couples are shown to originate from the Kalpavriksha and Kalpalata, symbolizing that each individual's life is a Kalpavriksha, and the mind itself is a great Kalpavriksha.

Symbolic Subjects of Art: The subjects of Indian art are of paramount importance as they interpret Indian life and thought. Indian life has left an indelible mark on art. A key feature is the integration of the religious beliefs of the common people with the higher religious doctrines of Buddha, Mahavira, Shiva, and Vishnu. No religion in India has become so detached from popular beliefs as to create an unbridgeable chasm. Indian religion encompasses a spectrum from the philosophies of Buddha, Shiva, and Vishnu to the worship of local deities associated with the land. Various forms of worship, such as "Yavakhambha," "Nagamah," "Yugamah," etc., were prevalent in both popular culture and art, reflecting the reverence for the religious beliefs of both the elite and the common people.

Buddha: In art, the divine life of the historical Gautama Buddha is depicted, transcending human limitations. This portrayal is closely linked to symbols that signify deeper meanings. Examples include Buddha's descent from Tushita heaven, Maya Devi's dream of a white elephant, his birth from his mother's side, taking seven steps, his first bath by Naga kings, the creation of a begging bowl by gods, miracles involving fire and water, the taming of the elephant Nalagiri, the display of a thousand Buddha forms, the turning of the Dharma Chakra, his sermon to his mother in Tushita heaven, and his descent to earth on stairs of gold, silver, and copper. These artistic depictions present a symbolic imagination of Buddha's form, relating not to the historical Buddha but to his transcendental, divine aspect.

Shiva: From the Indus Valley to historical periods, Shiva is depicted in the form of the Linga or male iconography. Both have special significance in Indian religion and philosophy. While popular narratives about Shiva were adopted, new meanings were added to elevate his status in religion and philosophy. Thinkers and artists alike pursued this objective. The text lists various forms of Shiva depicted in art, such as Pashupati, Ardhanarishvara, Nataraja, Kamantaka, Gangadhara, Harihara, Yamanataka, Chandrashekhar, Yogeshwara, Nandiśvara, Umamaheśvara, Jyotirlinga, Ravananugraha, Panchabrahmā, Dakṣiṇāmurti, Aṣṭamūrti, Ekādaśa Rudra, Mrigavyādha, Mrityunjaya, etc. The interpretation of these forms is found in Indian religious philosophy, suggesting a common source for art and religion.

Deva (Deities): Indian art is a dedication to the divine. Deities reside in Yupas, Stupas, and temples. Despite variations in form, the meaning is singular. The same divine essence manifests in numerous divine and semi-divine beings like Gandharvas, Apsaras, Kumbhandas, Nagas, Yakshas, river deities, Siddhas, Vidyadharas, etc. All these are different forms of one great divine entity.

The text concludes by stating that there are several perspectives for studying Indian art, including archaeological context, methods of creation, style, chronology, cultural background, and, most importantly, the symbolic meaning of the artwork. Just as in Plato's aesthetics, art holds supreme importance in Indian aesthetics. While external form has its own significance, it is merely a means of expressing emotions. Form can be considered the body, while meaning is the life force of art. Kalidasa elevates art by calling word and form the mother of the universe and meaning the father. The divine parents of the universe are also the creators of the meaning and form of art. Meaning represents the eternal realm, and form represents the mortal world, both being manifestations of Vishnu. The regulating principle behind all things in the universe is the element of meaning, which is called Bhavana (feeling/emotion). These emotions are embodied in art and literature and can be of three types: Brahma Bhavana (universal, absolute emotion), Karma Bhavana (natural emotions of beings), and Ubaya Bhavana (combination of the universal and the human). Human actions alone are not enough; art becomes vibrant when the divine element enters its material form. The consecration of the divine in artistic form is the true consecration of art. The union of human action with divine knowledge leads to figures like Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Mahavira, who are the true objects of worship in art. Understanding the subtle meaning behind artistic forms leads to a complete and profound aesthetic experience, which is the Indian perspective. Beauty without spirituality is unfortunate. Art without spiritual meaning is like a woman without a husband. While form alone may be criticized, it becomes revered when coupled with spiritual meaning. Just as the contemplation of the divine in the Vishwarupa purifies the soul, art, like fire, cleanses the mind of impurities. Both the artist and the connoisseur can attain the full fruit of art's beauty through meditation and absorption. Every idol's beginning and end lie in religious or spiritual expression; it is merely a symbol of the divine.