Bharatiya Darshanoma Mokshavichr - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Bharatiya Darshanoma Mokshavichar" by Nagin J. Shah, based on the provided excerpts:

Core Concept of Moksha (Liberation)

The text begins by defining Moksha as liberation or freedom, specifically the liberation of the soul (Atman) from suffering. This concept presupposes several fundamental beliefs:

Existence of the Soul: The soul exists.
Soul Experiences Suffering: The soul is subject to suffering.
Causes of Suffering: There are identifiable causes for this suffering.
Means to Remove Causes: Remedies exist to eliminate the causes of suffering.
Possibility of Liberation: Freedom from suffering is attainable.

The text emphasizes that this liberation is not temporary but eternal. Once liberated, the soul is free from suffering forever. This absolute and ultimate freedom from suffering is termed Moksha. An analogy is used: being pricked by a thorn causes pain, and removing the thorn provides relief. However, the possibility of being pricked again remains, and other pains might arise. Thus, this relief is not absolute liberation.

The Nature of the Soul and Differing Philosophical Views

The text then delves into how different Indian philosophical schools understand the soul (Atman) and its relation to suffering. The soul, not the body, mind, or senses, is the true experiencer of suffering.

Charvaka: This materialistic school believes in only material elements (un-intelligent). The soul is a mere emergent property arising from the specific combination of these elements. When the combination disintegrates, the soul is annihilated. Knowledge is a property of the material elements.
Ancient Samkhya, Jainism, and Buddhism: In contrast, these schools propose that knowledge is distinct from material properties. Therefore, an unintelligent substance cannot possess knowledge. They posit a separate, intelligent substance (Chitta or consciousness) as the soul. This intelligent substance is also considered to be in a state of flux, leading to the conjunction and disjunction of intelligent and unintelligent elements.
Later Samkhya: This school differentiates between the soul (Purusha) and intellect (Chitta), positing the Purusha as something beyond Chitta. It introduces the concept of "seeing" (Darshan) as a property of the Purusha, while "knowing" (Jnana) belongs to Chitta. The Purusha is considered eternally unchanging (Kutasthanitya), while Chitta is in flux. This distinction leads to the idea of a reflection relationship between Purusha and Chitta. Jains and Buddhists reject the notion of a Purusha beyond Chitta, arguing that Chitta itself is both the knower and the seer, making an independent Purusha unnecessary.
Nyaya-Vaisheshika: These philosophers accept the unchanging Purusha (soul) as in Later Samkhya. However, they reject the concept of Chitta altogether. While Later Samkhya acknowledged both Chitta and its properties (like knowledge, pleasure, pain), Nyaya-Vaisheshika attributes these properties directly to the soul (Purusha). To reconcile the soul's unchanging nature with these mutable properties, they classify knowledge, pleasure, and pain as attributes (Guna) of the soul, distinct from its inherent nature. These attributes arise from a combination of the soul, mind, and senses and exist in the soul through a co-existent relationship. They do not attribute "seeing" (Darshan) to the soul explicitly. The text notes that Nyaya-Vaisheshika considers the soul to be pure consciousness, free from knowledge, pleasure, or pain in its liberated state.
Shankara Vedanta: This school rejects both Chitta and its properties as ultimately unreal (Mithya). Only the Purusha (Brahman) is real. Knowledge is not a property of the Purusha; only "seeing" (Darshan) is. The Purusha is described as pure existence and consciousness, not necessarily as possessing knowledge in the conventional sense.

The Causes and Removal of Suffering

The text identifies the root cause of suffering as ignorance (Avidya) of one's true nature. This ignorance leads to attachment (Raga) and aversion (Dvesha), which are the primary afflictions (Kleshas). These afflictions, coupled with desires and passions, bind the soul with karmas (material substances that veil the soul's true nature).

The path to removing these causes involves:

Self-knowledge: Gaining knowledge of one's true self.
Purification of the mind (Chitta Shuddhi): Cultivating positive mental states like friendliness, compassion, and equanimity.
Ethical practices: Adhering to virtues like non-violence (Ahimsa) and practicing disciplines like purity (Shaucha).
Meditation (Dhyana): Stillness of the mind's activities (Chitta Vritti Nirodha).

By eradicating afflictions and karmic coverings, the mind returns to its pure state, leading to liberation from suffering.

Arguments Against the Possibility of Moksha and Their Rebuttals

The text addresses arguments suggesting Moksha is impossible:

Innate Afflictions: Afflictions are natural and eternal, making their eradication impossible.
- Rebuttal: Afflictions are not natural but arise from ignorance. Counter-meditations like friendliness can overcome them. The state of deep sleep (Sushupti) suggests the possibility of a state free from afflictions.
The Cycle of Karma: Actions lead to karmic bondage, which necessitates further actions to experience the results, perpetuating a cycle.
- Rebuttal: Actions performed by one free from afflictions do not create karmic bondage.
Impossibility of Concentration: Intense desires and external disturbances make concentration (Samadhi) impossible, which is necessary for self-knowledge.
- Rebuttal: Consistent practice (Abhyasa) can overcome distractions and allow for concentration.
The Calamity of World Annihilation: If Moksha were possible, everyone would eventually be liberated, leading to the end of the world (Samsara).
- Rebuttal: The number of souls in Samsara is infinite, so complete annihilation of the world due to liberation is not a concern.

Moksha According to Specific Schools:

Jainism: Moksha is achieved when karmic coverings, accumulated through afflictive actions from time immemorial, are completely destroyed. The soul (considered as Chitta) becomes pure consciousness, possessing infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy. It is freed from the causes of pleasure and pain. The liberated soul ascends to the apex of the universe and resides on the Siddhashila. Jains emphasize the importance of Samvara (preventing new karmas) and Nirjara (shedding existing karmas) through practices like self-control, equanimity, penance, and the Three Jewels (Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct).
Buddhism: The soul is identified with consciousness (Chitta), which is naturally radiant. Attachment and aversion are seen as impurities that have become intertwined with the stream of consciousness. Liberation (Nirvana) is the state where these impurities are removed, and consciousness returns to its pure, original state. Nirvana is described as the cessation of the five aggregates (Skandhas) – form, feelings, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness. This state is characterized by supreme peace. Buddhist philosophy rejects the notion of an enduring self (Pudgala) and emphasizes that in Nirvana, all consciousnesses are identical. They classify Nirvana into two types: Sopadhishesa (with residual aggregates) and Nirupadhishesa (without any aggregates).
Samkhya-Yoga: Moksha is the ultimate cessation of the three types of suffering. This system posits a Purusha (soul) beyond Chitta. Some interpret liberation as belonging to Chitta, while others attribute it to Purusha. In liberation, Chitta ceases to reflect the Purusha, and the Purusha remains in its pure, unchanging state of consciousness. Chitta eventually merges back into its primal nature (Prakriti). This state of the Purusha is called Kaivalya.
Nyaya-Vaisheshika: Moksha is the absolute cessation of suffering. They do not accept Chitta but attribute its attributes (knowledge, pleasure, pain) to the soul. These attributes are considered temporary and are destroyed in Moksha. The soul, though possessing these attributes, remains eternally unchanging. The liberated soul is characterized by the complete absence of these nine special attributes (knowledge, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, effort, virtue, vice, and impressions). Critics argue this state is akin to an inert stone, but the Nyaya-Vaisheshikas counter that stones are not even capable of experiencing suffering, making the comparison invalid.
Mimamsa: Similar to Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Mimamsa views knowledge as an attribute, not the essence of the soul. They believe Moksha involves the absence of knowledge and other attributes like pleasure and pain, as the necessary causal conditions for their occurrence are absent. However, Mimamsa does acknowledge the soul's potential for knowledge. They identify driven actions (Kamyakarmas) as the cause of suffering and karma. Performing Vedic actions without desire (Nishkama Karma) is the path to liberation.
Shankara Vedanta: The universe, including Chitta, is considered unreal (Maya). The soul is merely a reflection of the one universal consciousness (Brahman) in Maya. Ignorance (Avidya) causes the illusion of a separate self. Liberation is achieved through the realization of the non-duality of the soul and Brahman ("Aham Brahmasmi" - I am Brahman). This realization dissolves all suffering, as suffering arises from the perception of duality. The liberated soul merges into Brahman, becoming pure bliss and consciousness, devoid of individual existence, thoughts, pleasure, or pain.

In essence, "Bharatiya Darshanoma Mokshavichar" provides a comparative analysis of how various Indian philosophical traditions understand the fundamental concept of liberation from suffering, highlighting the diverse interpretations of the soul's nature and the means to attain this ultimate freedom.