Bharatiya Darshano Me Atmatattva

This document, "Bharatiya Darshano me Atmatattva" (The Concept of the Soul in Indian Philosophies) by Mahasati Shri Pramodsudhashreeji, is an extensive exploration of the soul (Atman) within the framework of various Indian philosophical schools, while also drawing comparisons with Western thought.

The author begins by stating that the primary purpose of philosophy is the study of the soul. The soul is defined as an element imperceptible to the senses, yet it is the central focus of our entire life cycle, the "emperor and ruler of creation." Indian philosophy, more than any other, has strived to comprehensively explain the nature of the soul. While acknowledging that Greek philosophers also discussed the soul, the author asserts that the Indian exposition is clearer and more detailed. The author posits that Western philosophy, to a great extent, is the philosophy of nature rather than the soul.

Western Philosophical Perspectives:

The document then delves into Western philosophical views on the soul:

• Plato and Aristotle: Both are cited as conceptualizing the soul as a spiritual essence. Plato believed in the soul's pre-existence and immortality, attributing its divine and immortal nature to its intellectual aspect. Aristotle viewed the soul as the intrinsic essence or form of the body, agreeing with Plato that the soul is an incorporeal, non-material entity existing independently.
• Plotinus: In his view, the soul is a "daughter of God," eternal, transcendental, accessible, and active due to its scientific nature. The soul can think and gain self-knowledge.
• St. Thomas Aquinas: Aquinas held the soul to be immortal, created by God along with humans and angels. The human soul is non-material and remains active even after the body's dissolution.
• Modern Thinkers (Descartes, Locke, Berkeley): These thinkers are presented as reviving the Platonic and Aristotelian theories. Descartes considered the soul a spiritual entity whose inherent quality is thought or consciousness, famously stating, "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am). Locke believed the soul to be an experiencing entity, contrasting its thinking nature with the non-thinking nature of matter. Berkeley saw the soul as a spiritual entity that perceives and acts upon ideas, defining the soul as that which thinks, wills, and perceives.
• David Hume: Hume critically examined the "soul substance theory," arguing there is no evidence for the soul's existence and that it cannot be directly perceived or apprehended. He proposed the idea of the soul as a sequence of mental states, an empirical conception akin to the Buddhist concept of a stream of consciousness.
• Other Western Thinkers: The author mentions other thinkers who criticized ancient theories of the soul, proposing concepts like the "Nominal Self." Idealists viewed the soul as a concrete spiritual unity manifested in mental states. Materialists, like the Greek atomist Democritus, theorized the soul was composed of subtle, smooth, and round atoms. Max Müller supported the existence of the soul, stating, "I am, therefore I think." Thinkers like McDonald, Schopenhauer, and Sundering Holder are noted for accepting the soul's originality and indestructibility, seeing the abstract soul as beyond the scope of physical science.

Indian Philosophical Perspectives:

The core of the document focuses on the concept of the soul in Indian philosophies:

• General Agreement: With the exception of the Charvaka school, all other Indian philosophies agree on the existence of the soul. The soul is universally accepted as being full of consciousness, knowledge, and the power of experience. This shared understanding points to a common underlying thought in Indian philosophy, with the ultimate goal being the attainment of "Sat-Chit-Ananda" (Existence-Consciousness-Bliss).

• Supremacy of the Soul: Indian thinkers place the highest importance on the soul, considering consciousness its inherent quality or nature. All our actions are believed to be under the soul's control. The development of the soul's nature is seen as interconnected and harmoniously evolving across different philosophies.

• Relationship with God: It is firmly established that the soul exists and has infinite power. It shares a close relationship with God, who possesses an inconceivable nature.

  • Nyaya and Vaisheshika: These schools consider the soul and God as distinct entities. They believe the soul is eternal, unchanging, and all-pervasive. The soul is the knower, the experiencer, and the doer. Its very essence is to exist eternally and everywhere. Liberation (moksha) is the soul's attainment of its true state of being.
  • Samkhya: This school also acknowledges the existence of consciousness, deeming it eternal and all-pervasive. The soul is seen as the knower and the seer, but not the experiencer or the active doer.
  • Mimamsa: This philosophy accepts the soul's immortality.
  • Vedanta: Vedanta's exploration of the soul reaches the pinnacle of non-dualism (Advaita). In Advaita Vedanta, the soul is described as eternal and self-luminous, neither the knower, the known, nor the 'I'. Vishishtadvaita Vedanta asserts that the soul is not just consciousness but also the knower. Shankara, a prominent Advaita proponent, stated that the soul is an indestructible, all-pervasive Being-Consciousness-Bliss, where consciousness and bliss are its very nature. The soul transcends distinctions of knower and known, time, space, and causality, being pure consciousness beyond intellectual understanding.
  • Buddhism (Later Schools): Even Buddhist philosophy, which is generally considered to be about impermanence, accepts the existence of the soul. While later philosophers like Nagarjuna and Dignaga introduced concepts like "Shunyata" (emptiness), a hidden acceptance of the soul is still discernible. Like Hume, Buddhists do not believe in a permanent soul, viewing it instead as a series of mental processes or a stream of consciousness.

• Jain Philosophy: Jainism explicitly accepts the concept of the soul, with its fully developed state being equated with divinity (Ishwara). In Jainism, the soul (Jivatma) is the knower, the experiencer, and the doer. The body and soul are a composite creation, with the soul as the active partner and the body as the passive one. The soul has dimensions, contracting and expanding according to its "Agurulaghu" (non-diminishing, non-increasing) quality. Souls, infinite in number, occupy space within the universe. The soul is entirely distinct from the senses and the body, being a conscious entity. Its presence is dependent on the body, like a lamp illuminating different spaces. Free souls transcend these limitations, becoming pure and obtaining an eternal state.

  • Nature of the Jain Soul: The Jain soul is described as ageless, immortal, and indestructible, a self-existent substance that is eternal and everlasting. The author quotes scriptures to support this: "I (the soul) am imperishable, unchanging, and of uniform essence." "I am solely of the nature of consciousness." The soul is inherently pure, of the nature of pure perception and knowledge, and possesses infinite power and bliss. Philosophers like Acharya Kundakunda are highlighted for their focus on the soul's nature.
  • Jain Contribution: Jain philosophy's dedicated effort to elucidate the soul's nature is presented as a unique and valuable contribution to the world.

Nature of the Soul (Atman Swaroop):

The document then addresses the debate about whether knowledge is an inherent or acquired quality of the soul:

• Indian Debate: All spiritual Indian philosophies agree that the soul is of the nature of knowledge. Nyaya and Vaisheshika consider knowledge an exceptional but acquired quality of the soul, existing only in the embodied state and disappearing in liberation. Samkhya and Vedanta, conversely, consider knowledge an inherent quality of the soul. Vedanta goes so far as to equate knowledge with Brahman ("Vijnanam Brahma") and states, "Tattvamasi" (That thou art), implying the soul is knowledge and Brahman.
• Jain Perspective on Knowledge: Jainism's discussion on the soul's attributes and nature is described as subtle, profound, and extensive. Knowledge is seen as the essence of the soul. Similar to the inseparable relationship between the sun and its light, or fire and heat, knowledge is inseparable from the soul. The author quotes Acharya Amritchandra stating, "The soul is directly knowledge, and knowledge is directly the soul." Knowledge and the soul are one. Jain thinkers describe the soul as possessing only pure knowledge and pure perception, knowing and seeing all worldly objects, inherently possessing infinite power and bliss.

Conclusion:

The document concludes by reiterating that the eternal thought of India is that the soul is pure, enlightened, stainless, and free from any modifications. Lord Mahavir's teachings emphasize recognizing the infinite powers and brilliance hidden within every being. This single principle encapsulates all religious teachings and the wisdom of spiritual masters. The soul is the center of everything within us, and its actions are creative, while actions of the non-soul are passive. All souls are fundamentally alike, possessing identical infinite qualities like knowledge, perception, bliss, and immortality. These are inherent, natural qualities, not inspired by external objects.

In essence, the book "Bharatiya Darshano me Atmatattva" provides a comprehensive overview of the soul's concept across various philosophical traditions, highlighting its central importance in Indian thought and its distinctive treatment within Jain philosophy.