Bharatiya Darshano Me Atmatattva

This document, titled "Bharatiya Darshanon me Atmatattva" (The Concept of the Soul in Indian Philosophies) by Dr. M.P. Patairiya, is an academic exploration of the concept of the soul (Atman) across various prominent Indian philosophical schools. The book, published as part of the Sadhviratna Pushpvati Abhinandan Granth, aims to provide a comprehensive theoretical analysis and review of the soul's nature as understood by different philosophical traditions.

The author begins by highlighting that Indian philosophy's intellectual horizon is multifaceted, primarily concerned with the existence and nature of 'Jiva' (soul/living being) and 'Jagat' (world). The core motivation for philosophical inquiry, the text suggests, is the desire for liberation from suffering, leading to the pursuit of 'Atma-sakshatkar' (self-realization). The collected experiences and insights of realized sages and acharyas were then systematically presented to guide others toward this goal.

The document then proceeds to analyze the concept of the soul through the lens of several major Indian philosophical systems:

1. Charvaka Philosophy: This school represents the most material or gross form of understanding the soul. While no complete systematic text exists, references in various scriptures are considered representative. The Charvakas believed the soul is a product of the mixture of the four elements (earth, water, fire, air) and is conscious. They proposed several views on the soul's identity: * Bhuta-chaitanyavada (Consciousness from Elements): Consciousness arises spontaneously from the combination of material elements, similar to how intoxication arises from mixing certain substances. * Dehatmavada (The Body is the Soul): The body, endowed with consciousness, is the soul. When the body dies, consciousness ceases. * Mana Atma Hai (The Mind is the Soul): Some Charvakas identified the mind as the soul, as it governs bodily functions and imparts knowledge. * Indriyatmavada (The Senses are the Soul): Another view identified the senses, either individually (ekendriyatmavada) or collectively (militeindriyatmavada), as the soul. * Pranatmyavada (The Life-Breath is the Soul): The vital life-breath (Prana) was considered the soul, as life and sensory functions cease with its departure. * Putra Atma Hai (The Son is the Soul): Some believed a son's well-being was directly tied to the father's soul. * Artha/Dhan Atma Hai (Wealth is the Soul): Wealth was considered paramount, providing freedom and power, leading some to equate it with the soul. The Charvakas are characterized as materialists (Bhautavada/Bhautikavada), and their theories are largely based on empirical observation and worldly practices, hence also known as 'Lokayat'.

2. Buddhist Philosophy: The Buddha, upon attaining enlightenment, also achieved self-realization but remained largely silent on the explicit nature of the soul. He prioritized ethical conduct and purification of the mind, believing self-knowledge would naturally follow. He avoided definitive answers to questions like whether the soul is distinct from the body, material or immaterial, or if it persists after death. The text notes the Western scholar Oldenberg's interpretation that the Buddha's silence on "soul exists" or "soul does not exist" implies a position beyond both. Despite this, Buddhist philosophy accepts the concept of the soul as a combination of five aggregates (Skandhas): form (Rupa), feelings (Vedana), perceptions (Sanna), mental formations (Samskara), and consciousness (Vijnana). The text quotes Rhys Davids to explain that the soul cannot subsist without these aggregates, and their combination is impossible without previous actions. This intricate process suggests a continuous, impermanent, and non-substantial existence. The Buddhist understanding of the soul is therefore neither identical with the five aggregates nor entirely separate from them, nor is it a permanent, unchanging entity.

3. Vedic Literature: The Vedic tradition, seeking liberation from suffering through self-realization, initially found solace in the worship of deities like Indra and Varuna, considering them as the soul. As understanding evolved, a quest arose for the "greatest" entity, leading to the identification of the true soul. The Upanishads, however, distinguished the soul from deities, stating that divine powers are bestowed by Brahman. The Brahmanas and Aranyakas describe Brahman as the creator of deities, yet not separate from them. The soul, in contrast, was posited as distinct from deities. Various interpretations of the soul are found: the middle part of the body, skin, blood, flesh, bones, mind, intellect, ego, consciousness, and states of consciousness (waking, dreaming, deep sleep, etc.). The Taittiriya Aranyaka describes the soul as imbued with life-breath, consciousness, and bliss. The Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka offer differing views, with the latter suggesting the soul is the source of creation, both formless and with form, ultimately equating it with Brahman. The Aranyakas present a spectrum from the grossest to the all-pervading nature of the soul.

4. Upanishadic Thought: The Upanishads focus centrally on the soul, equating Brahman (previously considered distinct) with the soul. They assert that nothing exists independently of the soul in the universe. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes the soul as Brahman, composed of knowledge, mind, life-breath, senses, and elements, encompassing all duality. The soul is seen as the protector of the body, the liberator from suffering, and the object of desire. It is described as indivisible, complete, and the basis of contradictory qualities. The text notes that knowledge of Brahman may have initially resided with the Kshatriyas. It emphasizes that the soul cannot be attained through study, intellect, or extensive listening but only by one who chooses the soul. The Kathopanishad echoes this, stating the soul is attained by the one it chooses.

5. The Nature of the Jiva (Individual Soul): The Jiva, described as mortal and immortal, stable and unstable, becomes entangled with ignorance (avidya). It experiences pleasure and pain according to past karma and undergoes cycles of birth and death, acquiring a complete physical body before birth. It traverses different realms, experiencing both simultaneously in dreams.

• Reincarnation: When the physical body weakens, the Jiva transitions from the waking to the dream state, abandoning the old body due to ignorance and adopting a new one. This shedding of the body is death. In this state, the Jiva becomes weak and devoid of consciousness, residing in the heart. Upon death, its form and knowledge are the first to perish, followed by other senses and the inner organ. A light appears above the heart, guiding the life-force out of the body. Even in this state, desires (vasanas) remain, determining future births.
• Attaining the Supreme State: The Jiva's present actions determine its future birth, necessitating good deeds for a better next life, along with study and yoga for knowledge. Good deeds lead to favorable bodies and abodes. Attaining knowledge through austerity and merit in this life destroys desires and karma, leading to 'Jivanmukti' (liberation while living). Upon the exhaustion of residual karma, the body is shed, and the Jiva experiences self-realization or attains the 'Supreme State'.

6. Nyaya Philosophy (Logic and Epistemology): In Nyaya, the soul is the substrate of knowledge. It is the seer, enjoyer, omniscient, eternal, and all-pervasive. Nyaya argues that the soul cannot be directly perceived by external senses or the mind, but its existence is inferred through characteristics like desire, aversion, effort, happiness, and suffering. The 'soul' here refers to the individual soul ('Jiva-atma' or 'bound soul'). The diversity of pleasure and pain suggests distinct souls in each body, each the enjoyer of its experiences. Even in liberation, each soul remains separate and independent, supporting the Nyaya view of the plurality of liberated souls. The Nyaya soul is the receptacle of knowledge but inherently devoid of it, hence considered inert. Consciousness is an acquired quality through the mind's association. The soul's qualities include knowledge, happiness, and suffering. Good and bad impressions from actions of mind, speech, and body reside in the soul and are carried to subsequent bodies, influencing experiences. Nyaya addresses the paradox of an all-pervading soul moving between bodies, stating that the soul's impressions are omnipresent. While impressions are not considered to be in the mind itself, their awakening through association with the mind in a physical body makes the soul experiential. This transference of impressions along with the soul is explained by the soul's connection to the mind.

• Moksha (Liberation): Liberation is the cessation of twenty-one types of suffering and their causes. This is achieved through scriptural study, which reveals flaws in worldly objects, leading to detachment and a desire for liberation. Practicing Ashtanga Yoga under a guru, achieving mastery in meditation and contemplation, leads to self-realization. This destroys the five afflictions (avidya, asmita, raga, dwesha, abhinivesha), leading to inactivity and preventing the accumulation of karma. Through the power of yogic practice, the soul exhausts past karma, leading to 'Jivanmukti'. Upon the destruction of residual karma, the body is also shed, and the soul attains self-realization.

7. Mimamsa Philosophy: Mimamsa, like Nyaya, posits a soul distinct from the body and senses, considering it a 'substance'. Vedic texts indicate that the sacrificer (yajamana) goes to heaven after death, implying that something beyond the physical body, i.e., the soul, survives. The soul is considered eternal, the doer and enjoyer, known through the 'I' experience, and all-pervasive. The soul is seen as distinct in each body. Consciousness is an "accidental" quality, not inherent. When the soul is in a state of liberation or deep sleep, these qualities are absent, making the soul inert and knowable. Mimamsa accepts the plurality of souls, essential for understanding concepts of bondage and liberation.

• The Nature of Moksha: The body is the abode of experiences, senses the means, and objects of senses the enjoyables. The term 'Prapancha' refers to these, through which the soul experiences pleasure and pain, remaining bound since time immemorial. The ultimate cessation of these is moksha. This involves the destruction of previously generated bodies, senses, and objects, and the non-arising of future ones. The liberated soul becomes "healthy" (swastha), free from pleasure and pain, and remains in its own nature, endowed with knowledge, existence, and substance.
• Moksha Process: The destruction of accumulated merit and demerit from past lives, along with their consequences, leads to the cessation of pleasure and pain, freeing the soul from past bonds. Renouncing desired actions prevents the future accumulation of merit and demerit. Performing Vedic actions and abandoning prohibited ones prevents the formation of new bodies. Upon the destruction of the previous body, the soul becomes liberated and established in its own nature. In the state of liberation, the soul possesses happiness, bliss, and knowledge. The merger with 'Prapancha' (the phenomenal world) is considered moksha.

8. Sankhya Philosophy: Sankhya posits three fundamental principles: Prakriti (unmanifest), Vikriti (manifest), and Purusha (consciousness). Prakriti and Vikriti are inert, while Purusha is conscious. Purusha is transcendental, known neither through intellect nor direct perception, and is beyond the three Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas). Its existence is primarily established through scriptural authority ('Agama' or 'Apta-vachana'). Sankhya argues that Purusha is uncaused, eternal, all-pervading, guneless, and inactive.

• Plurality of Purushas: While some scholars believe in the oneness of the ultimate conscious principle ('Jn' or Purusha), others assert its plurality. Ishvarakrishna, using the phrase "tatha cha purman," suggests oneness and similarity with Prakriti. However, other commentators emphasize the plurality of Purushas, citing phrases like "purusha-bahutvam siddha." The text argues that the description of the multiplicity of Purushas refers to the bound, worldly Purusha, not the pure, liberated state.
• Bound Purusha: The pure Purusha is one, but bound worldly Purushas are many. Their distinct births, deaths, sensory experiences, and the interplay of the three Gunas indicate their diversity. If they were one, the birth or death of one would affect all. This observable difference points to the plurality of bound Purushas.
• Objections to Plurality: Some argue that Sankhya accepts the plurality of pure souls. However, the text contends that the pure state of 'Jn' is liberated, free from birth, death, or sensory attributes, and devoid of the Gunas. Therefore, the concept of "purusha-bahutvam siddha" should refer to the multiplicity arising from birth-death and Guna variations in the bound state.
• Bondage and Liberation: Purusha, though inherently pure, becomes bound due to an eternal association with 'Avidya' (ignorance). This Avidya, being inert, reflects Purusha, making it appear active, enjoyer, and attached. This projected state is considered 'bandha' (bondage). Liberation is the severance of this bond through 'Viveka Buddhi' (discriminative intellect), which arises from 'Jnana' (knowledge). This knowledge destroys Avidya, allowing Purusha to realize its pure, detached nature. After the impact of other states like dharma and adharma ceases, the manifested world loses meaning for Purusha. Prakriti then ceases its creative activity, and Purusha attains 'Kaivalya' (isolation/liberation). However, due to residual karma, the body does not perish immediately. After experiencing this karma, the destruction of impressions leads to the dissolution of the body, granting 'Videha Kaivalya' (disembodied liberation).

9. Advaita/Shankara Vedanta: From the absolute perspective, Advaita Vedanta posits Brahman as the sole reality, the essence of bliss. Everything else is considered 'Ajnana' or 'Maya' (illusion). Understanding Maya is crucial to distinguish the real ('Vastu' or 'Atman') from the unreal. Without understanding the unreal, the imperceptible reality remains inaccessible. Advaita considers all phenomena besides Brahman as 'Asat' (unreal) and superimposed on Brahman. Maya, through its power of projection, creates illusory manifestations. The entire universe is considered a 'Vivarta' (transformation) of Brahman.

• Two Forms of Consciousness: Pervasive conscious Brahman is understood as nirvishesha (without attributes). It has two forms: (1) Consciousness itself, and (2) Consciousness associated with Maya or limiting adjuncts. Creation arises from these. When consciousness associated with limiting adjuncts is dominant, consciousness is the efficient cause. When Maya is dominant, consciousness qualified by Maya is the material cause.
• Nature of the Jiva: The consciousness enveloped by the 'Vijnanamaya Kosa' (sheath of knowledge) is called 'Jiva.' Since consciousness is pervasive, inactive, and omnipresent, it does not move. Therefore, it is the Vijnanamaya Kosa that actually transmigrates. The Jiva, as the doer, enjoyer, happy, and sad, is bound and seeks liberation.
• Identity of Jiva and Brahman: Advaita accepts the identity of the individual soul (Jiva) and the supreme soul (Brahman). The perceived difference is due to limiting adjuncts, which disappear upon realization, leading the Jiva to regain its true nature as Brahman. The mahavakya (great utterance) "Tat Tvam Asi" (That thou art) conveys this identity.
• The World and Maya: The visible world is an illusion of Maya and thus unreal. Attachment ('Samsarga') to worldly objects, which appear real due to Maya, constitutes the Jiva's bondage. When the Jiva realizes its identity with Brahman, its 'Jivatva' (individuality) is destroyed, signifying the end of bondage. The merger of the Jiva into Brahman is moksha. Ignorance ('Avidya') causes the fall from Brahmanhood to Jivahood, creating the duality of Atman/Brahman and Jiva/Brahma.

10. Jain Philosophy: Jainism divides reality into two fundamental principles: 'Jiva' (soul/consciousness) and 'Ajiva' (non-soul/inert matter). The soul is 'Jiva', and it exists in two states: 'bound' ('baddha') and 'liberated' ('mukta'). The soul, caught in the cycle of birth and death, performs various actions and becomes bound by karma.

• Nature of the Soul: The soul is called 'Jiva' because it possesses the quality of 'life' or 'existence' throughout its three periods (past, present, future). From a practical viewpoint, ten vital breaths ('prana') sustain life. From an ultimate perspective, anything possessing consciousness is 'Jiva.' Consciousness, termed 'bhava-prana,' is the defining characteristic.
• Characteristic of the Soul: The soul's defining characteristic is 'Upayoga' (consciousness or activity), which results in knowledge and perception. The soul's capacity for contraction and expansion allows it to fit within bodies of varying sizes. It is therefore 'swadeh-pramana' (body-sized). Due to the bondage of ancient karma, it acts and experiences the fruits of its actions, making it a 'karta' (doer) and 'bhokta' (enjoyer). Being formless, it is 'amurta' (immaterial). Its natural tendency is to move upwards ('urdhvagati'). Upon liberation from the cycle of existence, it is called 'Siddha.'
• Substance of the Soul: The soul possesses 'pradesha' (spatial units) and 'avayava' (parts), thus being an 'astikaya' (substantial entity). It undergoes constant transformation ('parimaman') while retaining its fundamental nature. The principles of origination ('utpada'), decay ('vyaya'), and permanence ('dhrauvya') are always present, defining it as a substance.
• Definition of Atman: In Jain scriptures, 'Atman' is defined as that which moves or goes ('atati/gacchati'). Since the root 'gam' also implies knowledge, the soul is that which resides entirely in qualities like knowledge or that which is comprehensive with the triple principle of origination, decay, and permanence.
• Types of Souls: From the perspective of 'dravyarhtika naya' (substantive viewpoint), the soul is one. However, from the perspective of 'paryayarthika naya' (modificational viewpoint), it is classified into three types:
  • Bahiratma (External Soul): The worldly soul that identifies with external substances like the body.
  • Antarātmā (Internal Soul): When the perception of external substances is removed and 'mithyatva' (wrong faith) is replaced by 'samvaktva' (right faith), the soul becomes an Antaratma. This further divides into superior, middle, and inferior categories.
  • Paramātmā (Supreme Soul): This is further divided into 'Sakala Paramātmā' (omni-knowing, omni-seeing Arhats) and 'Vikala Paramātmā' (Siddhas, the liberated souls).
• Bondage Process: Jainism attributes bondage to 'yoga' (activity of mind, speech, and body) influenced by 'raga-dvesha' (attachment-aversion). Each such activity allows karmic particles (inanimate matter) to enter the soul as seeds, binding it and causing future experiences of pleasure and pain. The cycle of desires and karma is considered beginningless. The primary causes of bondage are 'mithyatva' (wrong faith), 'avirati' (non-restraint), 'pramada' (carelessness), and 'kashaya' (passions). These affect the soul's fundamental qualities, leading to 'parabhava' (perverted states) and reinforcing the cycle of existence.
• Moksha (Liberation): Liberation is the complete annihilation of the karma bound to the soul. With karma destroyed, the soul becomes free and regains its pure state.
• Moksha Process: Jainism outlines the process in two stages: 'samvara' (prevention of new karma) and 'nirjara' (destruction of existing karma). By overcoming attachment, aversion, and wrong faith, the soul engages in the worship of knowledge, perception, and conduct, striving to break eight types of karmic knots. This involves destroying 28 types of Mohaniya karma, then simultaneously annihilating five types of Jnanavaraniya, nine types of Darshanavaraniya, and five types of Antaraya karma. This leads to the manifestation of infinite, unobscured kevala-jnana (omniscience) and kevala-darshana (omniscience of perception). Souls in this state are called 'Sarvajna,' 'Arhant,' or 'Kevali,' akin to the Vedanta concept of 'Jivanmukta.' Finally, in the last stage of 'Shukla Dhyana' (pure meditation), the soul ceases all mental, verbal, and physical activities and respiration, leading to the simultaneous destruction of Vedaniya, Ayushya, Nama, and Gotra karma. This complete destruction of karma liberates the soul from its physical bodies (audarika, karmana, taijasa) and it ascends to the apex of the universe, becoming a 'Siddha' or 'Mukta.'

Critique of Soul Doctrines: The document concludes with a comparative analysis of the various doctrines:

• Charvaka: Accepted only material aspects of the soul. Their significant contribution is not positing creation from nothing and considering the visible world as real and eternal.
• Buddhism: The Panchaskandha theory offers no fixed soul. The concept of 'Pratītyasamutpāda' is seen as a clever but ultimately unsatisfying explanation for suffering and existence without a soul. The text questions who experiences suffering or karma if there is no soul.
• Vedic: The concept of deities as souls likely arose from the influence of particular deities on the sages and their desire for fulfillment of wishes.
• Upanishads: Sage-seers were deeply involved in metaphysical inquiry, laying the groundwork for many later theories. The multifaceted nature of the world necessitates understanding it from various perspectives.
• Nyaya: While defining liberation as the absence of suffering, the continued association of the soul with the mind in liberation makes it questionable if it can be considered truly 'Paramatma.' The presence of the mind leaves room for potential worldly tendencies.
• Mimamsa: Considers the soul 'inert' and does not posit a moksha beyond heavenly enjoyment.
• Sankhya: Acknowledges the presence of 'Sattva' guna in the liberated state, suggesting Purusha doesn't achieve complete purity and remains somewhat connected to Prakriti.
• Advaita Vedanta: While asserting everything is Brahman, the presence of Maya and the world's unreal nature raises questions about the complete absence of Maya and its implications for Brahman.
• Jain Philosophy: Offers a logical distinction between Jiva and Ajiva. It details the qualitative evolution of the soul based on the degree of its association with inert matter. The less the influence of inert matter, the closer the soul gets to its pure state and liberation. Jainism considers the soul a mixture of conscious and inert elements, and liberation occurs when the inert component is completely removed. The pure, liberated soul does not allow the re-entry of inert matter, which is highlighted as a significant aspect.

The author concludes by stating that different Indian philosophical traditions offer varied perspectives on the soul and liberation. The emphasis should be on finding a synthesized, relative understanding rather than clinging to divergent views. Such an approach would be beneficial for any scholar or seeker of truth.