Bharatiya Darshan Ke Samanya Siddhant

This document, "Bharatiya Darshan ke Samanya Siddhant" (General Principles of Indian Philosophy) by Vijay Muni, is a comprehensive overview of the foundational tenets of Indian philosophical traditions. The author emphasizes that spirituality is the core essence of all Indian philosophies, regardless of their specific sectarian affiliations.

Here's a breakdown of the key themes and arguments presented:

1. Spiritual Foundation of Indian Philosophy:

• All Indian philosophical schools, without exception, engage with the concepts of Atman (soul), Ishvara (God), and the Universe.
• The nature of the soul, God, and the workings of the universe are central questions that every tradition attempts to answer from its own perspective.
• The soul is universally accepted as conscious and immortal. The only exception is the Charvaka school, which considers the soul identical to the body and therefore material, not immaterial.
• While there are differences in understanding the form and characteristics of the soul, its existence and immortality are rarely doubted.
• Similarly, the existence of God is generally accepted in some form, though the understanding of God's nature and attributes varies significantly.
• The existence of the universe is also undisputed. Even Charvakas accept the universe's existence, while other schools delve into its origin and structure, with some seeing it as having a beginning and end, and others as eternal and infinite.

2. Purpose and Methodology of Philosophy:

• Philosophy aims to understand the totality of existence by exploring the nature of reality, nature, the soul, and God.
• It seeks to resolve fundamental questions about the purpose and values of human life and its relationship with the world.
• Philosophy is seen as a critique of life and experience.
• It is built upon human thought and experience, with logical reasoning being a primary tool for understanding reality.

3. Indian vs. Western Philosophy:

• Western philosophy is characterized by its emphasis on theoretical purposes, independent thinking, and often neglects authoritative testimony (Apta Pramana). It draws less inspiration from practical aspects of ethics and religion.
• Indian philosophy, in contrast, draws inspiration from spiritual contemplation. It is fundamentally a spiritual research and quest aimed at achieving the ultimate goal of human life: Moksha (liberation).
• Knowledge of the nature of reality is considered essential as a means to attain this supreme goal. Therefore, Indian philosophy is inherently spiritual, not materialistic.

4. Interdependence of Dharma and Darshan:

• In India, Dharma (righteousness, duty, spiritual practice) and Darshan (philosophy) are considered interdependent.
• Dharma is not blind faith but reasoned experience. It serves as a practical means to achieve spiritual power.
• Philosophy investigates reality and grasps its nature through contemplation, leading to liberation. Thus, Indian philosophy is an spiritual pursuit, not mere intellectual indulgence.
• While thought and contemplation are important, authoritative testimony (Agama, Pitaka, Veda) holds a higher place than direct perception in Indian philosophy. This means indirect experience is often emphasized over direct experience.

5. Classification of Indian Philosophical Schools:

• Indian philosophies are categorized in various ways by scholars.
• The most common classification is into Astika (orthodox) and Nastika (heterodox) schools.
  • Astika schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
  • Nastika schools: Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism.
• The author questions the logic behind this classification, particularly the basis for calling Vedic schools "orthodox" and non-Vedic schools "heterodox." He suggests that the criterion might be belief in Vedic pronouncements, but this leads to contradictions.
• If the criterion for Nastika is non-belief in God, then schools like Samkhya and Yoga, which are considered Astika, would also qualify as Nastika, as they do not accept God. Even Mimamsa, a strong proponent of Vedic traditions, does not accept God's existence.
• Therefore, the author concludes that the Astika-Nastika division is misleading.
• A more accurate classification is into Vedic and non-Vedic (Avadic) schools. The six Astika schools fall under the Vedic category, while Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism are non-Vedic.
• This leads to nine fundamental Indian philosophies: Charvaka, Jain, Buddhist, Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
• Some scholars further divide non-Vedic philosophies into six (Charvaka, Jain, Sautrantika, Vaibhashika, Yogachara, Madhyamaka) and Vedic into six, making a total of twelve.

6. Specific Schools and Their Tenets:

• Nyaya and Vaisheshika: Though with some theoretical differences, they share similar views on nature, soul, and God. They have merged over time into the Nyaya-Vaisheshika school.
• Samkhya and Yoga: They share the same understanding of Prakriti (nature) and Purusha (consciousness). Samkhya is atheistic, while Yoga is theistic. They are often grouped as Samkhya-Yoga.
• Mimamsa: Has two sub-schools: Bhatta and Prabhakara.
• Vedanta: Has two main schools: Advaita (Shankara) and Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja), with other smaller schools that can be included in theistic philosophies. Mimamsa can be considered Purva-Mimamsa (earlier) and Vedanta as Uttara-Mimamsa (later).
• Buddhism: A philosophy of change and impermanence. Key schools include:
  • Vaibhashika and Sautrantika (Sarvastivada): Realists, believing in the reality of external objects. Vaibhashika are direct perceivers of external objects, while Sautrantikas infer them.
  • Yogachara (Vijnanavada): Idealists, believing external objects are illusory, and only consciousness (Vijnana) is real.
  • Madhyamaka: Believes neither external objects nor internal consciousness are ultimately real; both are conventional realities. The ultimate truth is "emptiness" (Shunyata), which is ineffable and unknowable. Some Buddhist scholars believe in absolute consciousness as the only reality.
• Jainism: Fundamentally dualistic, accepting the existence of both soul (Jiva) and matter (Pudgala) as distinct realities. It is atheistic. The four main Jain sects (Shvetambara, Digambara, Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi) have no fundamental philosophical differences, only variations in ethical practices, primarily concerning the interpretation of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Aparigraha (non-possession).
• Charvaka: Had various sub-schools, including four-element and five-element theories.

7. General Principles of Indian Philosophies: The text identifies four overarching principles that encompass most Indian philosophical thought:

• Atmavada (Belief in the soul): All Indian philosophies accept the existence of the soul. Nyaya and Vaisheshika consider it an indestructible and eternal substance with attributes like desire, hatred, effort, pleasure, pain, and knowledge. It is the knower, doer, and enjoyer. Mimamsa sees consciousness as an acquired quality, absent in deep sleep and Moksha. Samkhya views the Purusha as eternal, all-pervasive, and consciousness itself, not an acquired attribute. It considers the Purusha inactive and devoid of pleasure and pain, which are attributed to the intellect. Advaita Vedanta sees the soul as pure existence, consciousness, and bliss. Jainism affirms the soul as eternal, indestructible, and possessing infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy. Charvaka denies the soul's distinct existence, identifying it with the conscious body. Buddhism sees the soul as a constantly changing stream of consciousness and volitions.
• Karmavada (Law of Karma): This is a crucial principle. The experiences of pleasure and pain in life are rooted in karma. The diversity and uniqueness of the world are attributed to individual karma. Jain scriptures offer the most detailed analysis of karma. All Indian philosophies, except Charvaka, believe in the law of karma. It's the moral principle of cause and effect: good actions lead to happiness, and bad actions lead to suffering. These actions leave subtle impressions that determine future experiences. Karma is the cause of birth and death, the cycle of transmigration.
• Parlokavada (Belief in the afterlife/other worlds): Given the immortality of the soul and its experiences of pleasure and pain, the concept of an afterlife arises to account for the reception of karmic fruits. This is also known as Jananntarvada (belief in rebirth). All Indian philosophies, except Charvaka, accept this principle.
• Mokshavada (Belief in Liberation): The ultimate goal is to break the cycle of birth and death. The causes of this cycle are identified differently: lack of discrimination between Prakriti and Purusha (Samkhya), ignorance (Nyaya-Vaisheshika), Avidya or Maya (Vedanta), desire (Buddhism), and a combination of wrong beliefs, lack of restraint, negligence, passions, and karma (Jainism). Liberation is achieved through the destruction of ignorance and the attainment of true knowledge.

8. The Nature of Moksha/Nirvana:

• Charvaka: Considers death itself as liberation (Apavarga or Moksha). They believe in enjoying worldly pleasures as the ultimate goal.
• Buddhism: Calls liberation Nirvana, signifying the complete cessation of all suffering. It means "to be extinguished," but not the annihilation of the soul itself, but of suffering. Some Buddhists see Nirvana as a state of pure bliss.
• Jainism: Moksha is the manifestation of infinite perception, infinite knowledge, infinite bliss, and infinite energy. It is achieved by destroying the karmic coverings through Ratnatraya (the three jewels: Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct). The text quotes Acharya Kundakunda on the necessity of actively trying to break bonds, not just understanding them, and realizing the soul as distinct from all other things.
• Samkhya: Liberation is the discrimination (Viveka) between Prakriti and Purusha. Purusha is eternal and free; its bondage is due to mistakenly identifying with Prakriti and its modifications.
• Yoga: Moksha is Kaivalya, the state of release from the net of Prakriti, achieved through penance and self-control, which purges the mind of karmic impressions. Both Samkhya and Yoga describe this as a state of pure consciousness, transcending pleasure and pain.
• Nyaya and Vaisheshika: Moksha is the state where the soul is completely free from mind and body, remaining as pure existence. They consider this an unconscious state, as consciousness is an acquired attribute.
• Mimamsa: Moksha is the attainment of the soul's natural state, devoid of pleasure and pain. The soul is naturally beyond pleasure and pain, possessing power but not knowledge in this state.
• Advaita Vedanta: Moksha is the union of the individual soul (Jivatma) with Brahman, as the soul is ultimately Brahman. Bondage is considered illusory, caused by Avidya or Maya. Liberation is the realization of the soul's true nature as existence, consciousness, and bliss (Sat-Chit-Ananda).

9. Conclusion:

• Indian philosophical concepts are deeply connected to life and present high ideals.
• These ideals are meant to be put into practice through various methods of sadhana (spiritual practice), such as Jnana Yoga (path of knowledge), Karma Yoga (path of action), and Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion). Jainism calls these the three jewels. Buddhism refers to them as wisdom, virtue, and concentration.
• Philosophy is not just about intellect and logic but also about the heart and action. It emphasizes faith, knowledge, and conduct.
• Indian philosophy is not merely intellectual play but a profound reflection of the real and actual state of life.

The concluding remarks use analogies to emphasize that outer appearances are not decisive, and spiritual practice, though challenging, leads to the ultimate goal through perseverance.