Bharat Ke Shat Darshan Va Unke Praneta - Book Summary

This document is an excerpt from the book "Bharat ke Shat Darshan va unke Praneta" (The Six Darshanas of India and Their Founders) by Sohanraj Kothari, published as part of the Swa: Mohanlal Banthiya Smriti Granth. The author, a former judge, aims to provide a brief introduction to the six prominent philosophical systems (Darshanas) of Brahmanical tradition in India, distinct from Shramanic culture (Jainism and Buddhism), for comparative study with Jain philosophy.

Here's a summary of each Darshana discussed:

1. Nyaya Darshana and its Acharya Gautama:

Founder: Maharshi Akshapada Gautama.
Time: Estimated as the 3rd century BCE.
Core Text: Nyaya Sutra.
Focus: Systematic exposition of logic and the art of debate (Vada Vidya).
Key Concepts:
- The Nyaya Sutra lists sixteen subjects of inquiry: Pramana (means of knowledge), Prameya (objects of knowledge), Samshaya (doubt), Prayojana (aim), Drishtanta (example), Siddhanta (conclusion), Avayava (members of a syllogism), Tarka (reasoning), Nirnaya (ascertainment), Vada (argumentation), Jalpa (cavilling), Vitanda (sophistry), Hetvabhasa (fallacious reasoning), Chala (equivocation), Jati (rejoinder), and Nigrahasthana (points of defeat).
- It systematically analyzes the four valid means of knowledge: Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), and Shabda (testimony).
- The text discusses concepts like soul (Atma), body, senses, intellect, mind, karma, rebirth, suffering, and liberation (Apavarga).
Influence: The Nyaya Sutra has influenced all branches of Indian philosophy, and its principles have been adopted by others. It also spread beyond India, with mentions in texts like "Rabo Daaveshta" and manuscript finds in Arakani script.
Goal: To achieve liberation (Nihshreyas) through right knowledge, dispelling ignorance, attachment, aversion, and delusion.

2. Vaisheshika Darshana and Acharya Kanada:

Founder: Acharya Kanada.
Time: Believed to have had a divine encounter with Lord Shiva, leading to the composition of the Vaisheshika Shastra.
Core Text: Vaisheshika Sutra (also called "Dashalakshani" due to its ten chapters).
Focus: Analysis of the physical world and categorization of reality.
Key Concepts:
- Padartha (Categories): The text categorizes existence into several fundamental principles (Padarthas). It enumerates nine substances: Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Time, Direction, Soul (Atma), and Mind.
- Atomism: The first four substances are believed to be composed of eternal and indivisible particles (paramanus).
- Properties of Substances: Substances possess qualities (Guna) and perform actions (Karma). Seventeen qualities are listed, including form, taste, smell, touch, number, magnitude, separation, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, intellect, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, and effort.
- Causation: Vaisheshika posits that a product cannot exist before its cause is created, which is contrary to the Samkhya doctrine of Satkaryavada.
Influence: Vaisheshika's principles have been used by other schools of Indian philosophy. Scholars like C.V. Raman acknowledged the validity of Kanada's theories on light. It is studied alongside Nyaya in Sanskrit schools. Mentions are found in Jain texts like Nandi Sutra and Anuyoga Dwar.
Goal: To understand and explain the world through rational analysis and classification, leading to both worldly prosperity (Abhyudaya) and ultimate liberation (Nihshreyas).

3. Samkhya Darshana and Darshanacharya Kapila:

Founder: Acharya Kapila.
Time: Predates Buddha and some Upanishads; mentioned in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.
Core Text: Samkhya Sutras (though the author emphasizes the insights of Kapila).
Focus: The nature of reality, duality of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter), and the path to liberation.
Key Concepts:
- Prakriti: The primordial, unmanifest substance that evolves into the material world. It is composed of three Gunas: Sattva (purity, light), Rajas (activity, passion), and Tamas (inertia, darkness).
- Purusha: Pure consciousness, eternal, unchanging, and distinct from Prakriti. There are innumerable Purushas.
- Evolution: The universe evolves from Prakriti through a series of twenty-three evolutes, starting with Buddhi (intellect), Ahamkara (ego), Manas (mind), the ten sensory and motor organs, and the five subtle elements (Tanmatras), which lead to the five gross elements.
- Satkaryavada: The doctrine that the effect pre-exists in the cause in an unmanifest form.
- Causality: The world is finite and has a cause.
- Suffering: Liberation from three types of suffering (Adhyatmika, Adhibhautika, Adhidaivika) is the ultimate goal.
Influence: Samkhya's philosophy on causality and the non-recognition of a creator God aligns with Jain and Buddhist thought. It influenced many Indian philosophies.
Goal: To attain liberation by realizing the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti through discriminative knowledge.

4. Yoga Darshana and its Acharya Patanjali:

Founder: Acharya Patanjali (considered the reviver and systematizer of ancient Yoga).
Time: 2nd century BCE.
Core Text: Yoga Sutras (comprising 165 sutras).
Focus: The practical science of mind control and consciousness for achieving liberation.
Key Concepts:
- Yoga: Defined as "Yogash chittavritti nirodhah" – the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind.
- Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga):
  - Yamas (ethical restraints): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy/right conduct), Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).
  - Niyamas (observances): Saucha (purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (self-study), Ishvara Pranidhana (surrender to God).
  - Asana (posture), Pranayama (breath control), Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), Samadhi (absorption).
Influence: Yoga has spread globally and influenced various psychological and spiritual practices. Patanjali's systematic approach provided a framework for this ancient discipline. It also influenced Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese spiritual traditions through the spread of Buddhism.
Goal: To achieve liberation (Kaivalya) by controlling the mind, purifying consciousness, and realizing the true nature of the self, free from the bonds of Prakriti.

5. Mimamsa Darshana and its Acharya Jaimini:

Founder: Acharya Jaimini.
Time: Around 500 BCE.
Core Text: Mimamsa Sutras (approximately 3000 sutras divided into 12 chapters).
Focus: Interpretation of the Vedas, particularly the ritualistic portions (Karma Kanda), and the establishment of Dharma through Vedic injunctions.
Key Concepts:
- Dharma: Defined as "Chodanālakṣaṇo ’rtho dharmaḥ" – that which is indicated by Vedic injunctions and leads to welfare.
- Vedic Authority: The Vedas are considered self-valid and the ultimate source of knowledge regarding Dharma.
- Rituals (Yajnas): The Mimamsa system emphasizes the performance of Vedic rituals as the means to attain desired results and to uphold Dharma.
- Interpretation of Texts: The work is also significant for its principles of hermeneutics and textual interpretation.
- Karma and Fruit: The relationship between actions (Karma) and their results (Phala) is a central theme.
Influence: Mimamsa played a crucial role in the preservation and interpretation of Vedic tradition. Its emphasis on ritual and scriptural exegesis influenced other religious and philosophical discussions. The author notes its complexity can make it less accessible to the general public.
Goal: To understand and perform Vedic rituals correctly to achieve the intended fruits and uphold Dharma.

6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) and its Acharya Badarayana:

Founder: Ved Vyas (also known as Krishna Dvaipayana Badarayana).
Time: Considered to be the compiler of the Vedas and author of the Puranas and Mahabharata during the Dvapara Yuga.
Core Text: Vedanta Sutras (also known as Brahma Sutras, Shariraka Sutras, Bhikshu Sutras, and Uttara Mimamsa Sutras).
Focus: The philosophical import of the Upanishads, the philosophical conclusion of the Vedas.
Key Concepts:
- Brahman: The ultimate reality, the Absolute Truth, the creator and sustainer of the universe.
- Atman: The individual soul, which is ultimately identical with Brahman.
- Moksha (Liberation): Attainment of oneness with Brahman through knowledge and spiritual realization.
- Vedanta Sutras: The text systematically organizes Upanishadic teachings, addresses counter-arguments from other philosophical schools (especially Samkhya), and discusses the means to liberation.
- The four initial sutras are considered the essence of Vedanta: Athato Brahma Jigyasa (Now, the inquiry into Brahman), Janmadyasya Yatah (From which the origin, sustenance, and dissolution of the universe proceed), Shastra Yonitvat (Brahman is the source of scriptures), and Tattu Samanvayāt (That (Brahman) is ascertained from the concordance of scriptures).
Influence: Vedanta is the most widespread and influential of the six Darshanas, with various schools of thought (e.g., Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita) interpreting its teachings. Adi Shankaracharya's commentary is considered the earliest.
Goal: To realize the oneness of Atman and Brahman, leading to liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

The author concludes by stating that this overview of non-Shramanic philosophies is presented to facilitate a comparative study with Jain philosophy, enabling readers to gain a proper understanding of eternal knowledge, cultivate right conduct, and achieve self-realization.