Ashiyai Sraman Parampara Ek Vihangam Drushti

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Ashiyai Sraman Parampara Ek Vihangam Drushti" (Asian Shraman Tradition: A Bird's Eye View) by Prof. Chandrashekhar Prasad:

The book explores the Asian Shraman Tradition, originating from the Indian Buddhist Shraman tradition. It notes that as Buddhism spread across Asia, the Shraman tradition was also accepted, as Buddhism was fundamentally a Shraman religion. The text aims to provide an overview of the Shraman tradition's roots in India and its characteristics in Asian countries where Buddhism thrives today.

Origins of the Shraman Tradition:

The author discusses two main theories regarding the origin of the Shraman tradition.

• Early View: Initially, scholars believed the Shraman tradition was a branch of the ancient Vedic Hindu tradition. This view was supported by the fact that Lord Buddha and Lord Mahavir were Kshatriyas, their followers were from Hindu society, and they challenged existing social malpractices, leading to the formation of distinct religions. Buddha was even considered an avatar of Vishnu, and Mahavir was worshipped by Hindus. There wasn't a significant social or religious divide between followers of Hinduism and Jainism/Buddhism.
• Revised View (Post-Indus Valley Excavations): Excavations at the Indus Valley Civilization sites have led to a shift in this understanding. The advanced urban civilization of the Indus Valley is believed to have been destroyed by the Aryans, who established the Vedic civilization. Historians now focus on identifying non-Aryan influences that were either assimilated into Vedic civilization or emerged in a synthesized form. The Shraman tradition is increasingly believed to have non-Aryan origins. The discovery of a "Yati" (often associated with Shiva) statue from Mohenjo-daro suggests the presence of Shramanic tendencies in the Indus Valley. In contrast, the Aryan civilization leaned towards worldliness and materialism, as evidenced by Vedic hymns praising Soma-drinking and the Keshisuukta describing nude ascetics.

The argument is made that reform and opposition typically occur within a framework. Buddhism and Jainism are seen as arising from a dormant Shraman stream that gained prominence alongside Vedic religion due to the influence of Buddha and Mahavir. While the Aryans may have destroyed the material aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization, core Shramanic tendencies remained dormant. Discontent with Vedic rituals, animal sacrifice, and the caste system led some Aryans to seek solutions outside their societal boundaries. Both Buddha and Mahavir were part of this Shraman tradition, which attracted a significant following of renunciates known by various names like Parivrajaka, Ajivaka, and Jatilaka in North India. Their influence was so great that even King Ajatashatru of Magadha met with them, signifying the established respect for the Shraman way of life.

Literal and Traditional Meaning of Shraman:

• Etymology: The word "Shraman" is derived from the root "shram" with the suffix "an," meaning "to toil" or "to exert," often referring to arduous labor. In a spiritual context, it applies to ascetics and monks engaged in self-mortification and penance.
• Interpretations:
  • Monier Williams' dictionary defines it as arduous labor, especially in low-level work.
  • Apte defines a Shraman as a person engrossed in meditation for liberation.
  • Buddhists referred to Buddha as "Shramana Gotama."
  • Buddha Ghosh, a prominent commentator, defines a Shraman as one whose sins have been subdued ("samitapāpānam").
  • The Sthanangasutra defines a Shraman as one who is equally disposed towards all ("samamanateti tena sa shramano"), meaning they behave uniformly towards friends and enemies.
  • It also refers to someone with a "su-man" (good mind).

Beyond personal spiritual attainment, the Shraman tradition denotes a specific lifestyle characterized by the rejection of Vedic rituals and a detachment from societal concerns. Shramans were constantly seeking solutions to their problems and exploring new ways of life.

The Shraman Tradition in Buddhism:

• The Term "Bhikkhu": In Buddhism, the term "Bhikkhu" (monk) is used instead of "Shraman." A Bhikkhu is defined as one who lives by alms ("bhikkhachariyam ajjhapatonto") or one who sees fear in the cycle of existence ("sansare bhayam ikkhanti").
• The Goal of Nirvana: The ultimate goal in Buddhism is Nirvana, meaning "cessation of desire" or "extinguishment." It's a state of liberation where the monk's mind is freed from impurities, achieving salvific knowledge and the end of the cycle of rebirth.
• The Middle Path (Madhyamapratipada): Nirvana is attained through the Middle Path, avoiding the extremes of self-mortification and sensual indulgence. This path involves observing sila (morality), samadhi (concentration), and prajna (wisdom).
• Monastic Life: Embracing the Bhikkhu life involved renouncing household life, shaving the head, wearing robes, and taking refuge in Buddhism and the Sangha. Strict rules of discipline (Vinaya) governed their conduct. Their sustenance was through alms (pindapata), their dwelling was at the foot of trees (rukshamūla), their robes were made from discarded cloth (pansukūla), and cow's urine (pūtimutta) was used as medicine.
• Alms-Gathering (Sapadaṅa Carikā): Monks practiced sapadaṅa carikā, a silent and undiscriminating collection of alms, stopping briefly at each house without seeking specific food. They avoided accumulating food and were forbidden from indicating any preference. They also accepted invitations to eat at laypeople's homes and received donations of robes and monastic residences (viharas).
• Evolution of Buddhist Tradition:
  • Mahayana: Post-Buddha, the focus shifted from individual liberation to the welfare of others (parakalyana). Mahayana emerged, emphasizing the Bodhisattva ideal of postponing one's own Nirvana to help all beings. This also led to a strict prohibition of meat consumption.
  • Schisms and Development: By Emperor Ashoka's time, the Sangha had divided into 18 sects. Mahayana's development further divided the Buddhist community. Later, Mantrayana (Tantric Buddhism) emerged, making the attainment of enlightenment easier through mantra and tantra. This led to the reintroduction of practices like consuming alcohol, fish, and meat, though some interpret these as symbolic.
  • Sedentarization of Monks: Initially practicing nomadic life, monks gradually became settled in monasteries (viharas). These monasteries, supported by royal patronage, became centers of comfort, sometimes attracting those seeking luxury.

Spread of Buddhism in Asia:

Emperor Ashoka's missionary efforts led to the spread of Buddhism across Asia, where it continues to be vibrantly alive in most countries. The text categorizes these traditions into Theravada, Mahayana, and Lamism.

• Theravada Tradition:

  • Prevalent in South and Southeast Asia, it's the only surviving school from the early 18 sects. It's considered conservative.
  • Sri Lanka: Ashoka's son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta were instrumental in its introduction. It was readily accepted, leading to the establishment of monasteries and a monastic life similar to India. The compilation of the Pali Canon (Tipitaka) in the 1st century BCE solidified the tradition.
  • Burma (Myanmar): Buddhism reached Burma via land routes. Missionaries Son and Uttar are believed to have preached there. While other sects initially entered, the Sinhala (Sri Lankan) tradition became dominant by the 12th century.
  • Thailand, Laos, Cambodia: Buddhism arrived in Cambodia in the 5th century, coexisting with Hinduism. Thailand adopted it earlier, and influence flowed between these regions. Theravada gained royal patronage in Thailand in the 13th century, leading to its widespread acceptance in the region.
  • Vietnam (Champa): Buddhism entered Vietnam by the 3rd century, with influences from Chinese sects and Mahayana. The Hinayana tradition there differs from Sri Lanka, following Chinese translations of Buddhist texts.
  • Indonesia and Malaysia: Buddhism flourished here from the 7th to 11th centuries before the rise of Islam. Despite Islamization, remnants of Hindu and Buddhist culture persist.
  • Characteristics of Theravada in Southeast Asia: The monastic life, alms-gathering, and daily routines largely follow the Pali Canon. Monks are typically resident monks in monasteries. While nomadic life is largely symbolic, they still adhere to a single meal a day before noon. Laypeople support the monks through donations.

• Mahayana Tradition:

  • Spread to China via Central Asia (Khotan) and Indian traders. It gained state recognition around the 1st century CE and became highly active by the 4th century. Indian and Chinese monks collaborated on translating scriptures.
  • Influence of Chinese Philosophy: Buddhism integrated with Confucianism and Taoism, providing the religious element missing in these philosophies. Confucianism provided social structure, Taoism offered natural laws, and Buddhism offered spiritual aspirations. Mahayana's ideal of universal welfare complemented Confucian concern for social relationships.
  • Practices: Mahayana monks generally followed a vegetarian diet. Differences in robes emerged compared to Theravada monks. Mahayana monks had a greater responsibility towards society and fulfilled the religious and spiritual needs of laypeople.
  • Korea: Buddhism reached Korea via China, largely mirroring Chinese Buddhist traditions, with local adaptations developing over time.
  • Japan: Buddhism arrived in Japan from Korea but was heavily influenced by Chinese Buddhism. Initially prevalent among the elite, efforts were made to popularize it among the masses, leading to its establishment as a folk religion. This era saw significant changes, including the introduction of married monastic life in some sects. A priestly class emerged, akin to Brahmins, performing rituals. Modern Japanese Buddhism also sees the rise of "household" Buddhist sects, addressing modern life's stresses and the search for mental balance. The monastic life in Japan expanded to include contributions to art, gardens, and ceremonies, enriching Japanese culture.

• Lamism of Tibet:

  • Buddhism entered Tibet in the 7th century via China and Nepal, but later turned towards India.
  • Tantric Influence: The final stage of Buddhist development in India, the era of Tantra, influenced Tibetan Buddhism. Prior to Buddhism, Tibetan culture was not highly developed, with prevalent superstitions and nature worship, which were integrated with Buddhism to form Bon religion. Tantric Buddhism, due to its adaptability to Tibetan beliefs and customs, became dominant.
  • Lamism: This Tantric form, blended with local beliefs, became known as Lamism. "Lama" means "guru," with Padmasambhava being the first addressed as such. The term evolved to refer to all Buddhist monks.
  • Avatara Tradition: A unique feature of Lamism is the concept of "incarnate lamas" (reincarnated spiritual leaders), with the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama being the most prominent.
  • Spiritual Devotion: Lamas are deeply engrossed in spiritual contemplation and scripture recitation.
  • Mongolia: Lamism spread to Mongolia in the 16th century, with the title "Dalai Lama" originating from a Mongolian commander, Altan Khan. Mongolian Buddhism is largely identical to Tibetan Lamism.

The Decline of the Buddhist Shraman Tradition in India:

The text laments the decline of the Buddhist Shraman tradition in its homeland. While external factors like invasions are mentioned, the author also points to Buddhism's own internal characteristics.

• Reasons for Decline: Unlike Jainism's rigid adherence to its core principles, Buddhism's flexibility, broad acceptance of ideas, and constant evolution led to its dilution in India. Its philosophy expanded so much that it lost its distinctiveness, merging with Hinduism. It started with an emphasis on sila, samadhi, and prajna but became entangled in rituals and, in its Tantric phase, was seen as a religion of the lower classes.
• Revival: In the 20th century, there has been a revival of Buddhism in India, partly due to Western scholars and, significantly, the influence of Dr. Ambedkar, leading to mass conversions to Neo-Buddhism, primarily in the West. Some Buddhist communities in India (Assam, Bengal, Bangladesh) are part of an unbroken tradition. Buddhism, though almost extinct, survived in remote areas, aided by support from Burma and Thailand.

Contribution of the Shraman Tradition to Asian Culture:

The book concludes by highlighting the invaluable contribution of the Shraman tradition to the development of civilized societies, especially in countries where advanced civilizations did not exist prior to Buddhism's arrival.

• Language and Literature: Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, is close to the original language of Buddha's teachings and has heavily influenced the languages of South and Southeast Asia. Tibetan literature is predominantly Buddhist, and Chinese language and literature were enriched by Buddhism.
• Art and Architecture: Buddhist influence is evident in Japanese folk traditions like the Obon festival (linked to the story of Maudgalyayana), Japanese "Noh" dramas developed in Buddhist temples, Tibetan dance and music, Tibetan Thangka paintings, and architectural marvels like Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Borobudur (Indonesia), Burmese pagodas, Thai wats, and Japanese temple gardens, all reflecting Buddhist themes and aesthetics. Indian sites like Ajanta, Sanchi, and Nalanda also showcase the flourishing of a highly civilized society through Buddhism.

The author expresses uncertainty about the future of the Shraman tradition in communist countries like China, where it is believed to have been suppressed. However, China's growing engagement in Buddhist studies suggests a potential re-emergence. In other Asian countries, the tradition remains vibrant and relevant.

The book ends with a philosophical reflection on the importance of human welfare and empathy, citing King Rantideva's selfless charity as an example of a truly noble life. The author urges that Jainism, currently confined to a specific segment of society, should also extend its activities for the betterment of all humanity to foster human virtues and solve societal problems.