Asceticism Religion And Biological Evolution

Here's a comprehensive summary of Johannes Bronkhorst's article "Asceticism, Religion, and Biological Evolution," based on the provided text:

The article by Johannes Bronkhorst investigates the perplexing phenomenon of asceticism, particularly practices like celibacy and self-denial, which appear to contradict biological evolution's emphasis on reproduction and survival. Bronkhorst argues that these counter-reproductive behaviors suggest a universal, innate human predisposition.

Key Arguments and Structure:

1. The Challenge to Evolutionary Theory: Bronkhorst begins by highlighting the difficulty sociobiology and evolutionary psychology face in explaining behaviors that reduce reproductive success. He uses the example of celibate priests, noting that while cultural factors can explain their behavior in specific contexts, they don't account for the widespread recurrence of such practices across different cultures.

2. Widespread Nature of Asceticism: The article establishes that asceticism is not an isolated cultural anomaly. Bronkhorst aims to demonstrate its prevalence across diverse societies, prompting the question of its underlying cause.

3. Examining Classical India:

   • He starts with Jainism in classical India, where practices like prolonged immobility and voluntary death through fasting are prominent. These practices are tied to the belief in karma and the desire for liberation from the cycle of rebirth. The goal is to cease all activity to avoid accumulating new karma and to exhaust existing karma.
   • He then discusses other Indian traditions like Ājivikism, which shared some ascetic ideas but differed on the mechanism of karma.
   • Bronkhorst notes the strong connection in India between ascetic practices (like immobility and abstaining from food) and theoretical frameworks that posit an inactive, true self (soul) distinct from the active body and mind. This concept is explored through philosophical schools like Sāmkhya, Vaiśeṣika, and Vedānta, all of which, despite their differences, emphasize the soul's inherent inactivity as a means to escape the consequences of action (karma).
   • The Bhagavadgītā is mentioned for its concept of detachment from the results of actions, allowing the material aspects of a person to act without binding the soul.
   • Early Buddhism is presented as a counterpoint, rejecting the doctrine of karma tied to physical acts and the notion of an inactive soul, instead focusing on desire and mental transformation. However, Buddhism's own evolution shows a complex interplay of ideas.

4. Examining Early Christianity:

   • Bronkhorst draws parallels between Indian asceticism and early Christian practices, noting the prevalence of immobility among Christian ascetics (e.g., hermits standing all night, stylites on pillars).
   • He connects these practices to Gnosticism, a movement that emphasized knowledge (gnosis) of the true self as distinct from the body and mind, and often described the divine and the true self in terms of immutability and stillness.
   • Martyrdom is presented as a precursor or parallel to asceticism, where individuals demonstrated incredible endurance and defiance of physical suffering and urges, often described as being "not present in the flesh" during torment.
   • Bronkhorst notes the Christian emphasis on self-restraint, virginity, and continence as preparations for martyrdom, mirroring the ascetic ideal.
   • The Gnostic rejection of martyrdom by some, in favor of inner knowledge, is likened to the Indian philosophical focus on the inactive self as an alternative to ascetic practice.

5. Identifying a Shared Human Predisposition (The "Ascetic Instinct"):

   • Bronkhorst proposes that the similarities observed in India and early Christianity are not due to borrowing but to a common underlying human predisposition. This predisposition is characterized as a disinclination to identify with body and mind, or an attitude of being different from body and mind.
   • He tentatively names this a "language instinct" and an "ascetic instinct," drawing a parallel with the concept of a language instinct in linguistics. Both are seen as shaping cultural complexes (language, religion) and being shaped by them over time.
   • Crucially, this "ascetic instinct" is distinct from sexuality in that it is less driven by strong emotions and can even involve the conquest of emotions.

6. Evidence from Tribal Societies:

   • To strengthen his thesis, Bronkhorst examines various tribal societies. He notes widespread beliefs in distinct "free souls" or "dream souls" that can leave the body, often during sleep or trance. These souls are typically inactive while the body is awake and conscious.
   • He also highlights initiatory practices in tribal cultures that involve extreme endurance, prohibitions (against sleep, food, drink), and often the infliction of physical pain (e.g., circumcision). These practices demonstrate a willful subjugation of bodily needs and pain, aligning with the proposed "ascetic instinct."
   • Furthermore, many tribal beliefs feature a "spiritual double" or a soul that is separate from the body, and notions of a remote, inactive, or transcendent supreme being, suggesting a broader cultural tendency to conceive of essences as distinct from the physical.

7. The Evolutionary Paradox and its Resolution:

   • The major puzzle is how a counter-productive "ascetic instinct" could survive natural selection.
   • Bronkhorst links this instinct to the development of symbolic thinking and language. He argues, following Terrence Deacon, that symbolic representation allows for self-consciousness, detachment from immediate impulses, and the creation of shared, abstract ideas.
   • This capacity for symbolic representation, and thus language, conferred a significant evolutionary advantage for survival and procreation. However, as a byproduct or inseparable aspect of this symbolic capacity, the "ascetic instinct" emerged. It might have slightly reduced the survival chances of individuals who acted upon it (e.g., through sexual abstinence), but this was more than offset by the overall benefits derived from language and symbolic thought.
   • The "ascetic instinct" is therefore not a direct target of natural selection itself but is intrinsically tied to a behavior (symbolic representation/language) that is highly adaptive.

8. Conclusion:

   • Bronkhorst concludes that the study has provided a framework for understanding asceticism comparatively by identifying a shared human predisposition: the disinclination to identify with body and mind.
   • This predisposition, tied to the evolution of symbolic thinking and language, helps explain not only ascetic practices but also widespread notions about the soul and inactive deities.
   • While the exact mechanisms of how this predisposition leads to specific ascetic actions require further exploration, Bronkhorst posits that it is a fundamental aspect of human nature, shaped by our evolutionary history.