Apbhramsa Sahitya Me Krushnakavya

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Apbhramsa Sahitya me Krushnakavya" by H.C. Bhayani, focusing on the Jain perspective on Krishna poetry within Apabhramsa literature:

Overall Context of Apabhramsa Literature and Krishna Poetry:

• Apabhramsa Literature's Timeline: Apabhramsa literature flourished from the 6th to the 12th century CE, with its influence continuing for another 400-500 years, albeit in a weakened state.
• Scarcity and Nature of Surviving Works: Our understanding of this literature is severely limited due to several factors:
  • Lack of Early Works: No Apabhramsa work predating the 9th century CE has been found. The initial three centuries are shrouded in darkness, and even works up to the 10th century are scarce.
  • Preservation of Specific Genres: Many literary genres in Apabhramsa have only one or a few surviving examples, often from later periods, leaving earlier forms undocumented.
  • Predominance of Religious Literature: The majority of surviving Apabhramsa literature is religious, and overwhelmingly Jain. Non-Jain Hindu and Buddhist works, and purely secular literature, are extremely rare. This means the picture of Apabhramsa literature is fragmented and biased towards Jain traditions.
  • Limited Publication: A significant portion of the surviving Apabhramsa literature remains unpublished, existing only in manuscript form, making it inaccessible.
• Apabhramsa and Krishna Poetry: The period of Apabhramsa's literary zenith coincides with the peak of Krishna poetry in Indian literature. Sanskrit and Prakrit texts like the Harivamsha, Vishnu Purana, and Bhagavata Purana served as foundational sources for Krishna narratives. Apabhramsa literature, deeply influenced by Sanskrit and Prakrit traditions, naturally developed a tradition of Krishna poetry.
• Challenges in Studying Jain Krishna Poetry:
  • Absence of Purely Secular Krishna Poetry: No purely secular Krishna poem from Apabhramsa has survived.
  • Absence of Non-Jain Krishna Poetry: No non-Jain Krishna poem in Apabhramsa has been found.
  • Krishna Poetry as Part of Larger Works: Surviving Jain Krishna works are often embedded within larger Puranic compositions.
  • Manuscript Status: Most of these works are still unpublished. While this doesn't diminish their poetic quality, they are bound by the conventions and limitations of Jain literature.

The Jain Conception of Krishna (Krishna Charitra):

• Krishna as a Human Being: In Jain tradition, Krishna was not a divine being or an incarnation of God. He was considered a human, albeit an exceptionally powerful hero and emperor.
• Krishna as a Shalakapurusha (Distinguished Person): Krishna belonged to the category of Shalakapurushas (sixty-three distinguished individuals who shape the world). This group includes 24 Tirthankaras, 12 Chakravartins (universal emperors), 9 Vasudevas (or Narayan), 9 Baladevas, and 9 Prativaseudevas.
  • Vasudevas held power second only to Chakravartins.
  • Each Vasudeva ruled three continents.
  • They achieved Vasudevahood by defeating their Prativaseudeva, with the help of their Baladeva.
  • The ninth triad consisted of Krishna (Vasudeva), Balarama (Baladeva), and Jarāsandha (Prativaseudeva).
• "Trishashti Shalakapurusha Charitra": Works detailing the lives of all sixty-three Shalakapurushas were called Trishashti Shalakapurusha Charitra or Trishashti Mahapurusha Charitra. If Prativaseudevas were excluded, the title was Chatushpanchashta Mahapurusha Charitra. In the Digambara tradition, these were also known as Mahapuranas, divided into Adipurana (first Tirthankara and Chakravartin) and Uttarapurana (remaining heroes).
• "Purana" as Individual Biographies: Besides comprehensive biographies, individual Puranas focusing on a specific Tirthankara, Vasudeva, etc., were also composed.
  • Krishna's biography was often linked to that of the 22nd Tirthankara, Arishtanemi (Krishna's cousin). Works combining their stories were known as Harivamsha or Arishtanemi Purana.
• Interconnected Narrative Threads: Jain Krishna narratives were interwoven with several other story threads:
  • Vasudeva's Journeys: The travels of Krishna's father, Vasudeva, and his acquisition of wives.
  • Arishtanemi's Life: The biography of the 22nd Tirthankara, Arishtanemi, who was Krishna's cousin.
  • The Pandavas' Story: Krishna's close connection to the Pandavas and the Mahabharata war.
  • Previous Incarnations: Tales of the past lives of the main characters.
• "Vasudevahandi": This refers to a narrative about Vasudeva's travels and his acquisition of wives from various lands, considered a Jain adaptation of Gunadhya's lost Brihatkatha.
• Nomenclature of Works: Depending on the primary focus, these works could be called Arishtanemi Charitra (or Nemipurana), Harivamsha, Pandavapurana, or Jain Mahabharata. However, consistency in naming was not always maintained.
• Conventions and Adaptations: Jain Puranic narratives were highly conventionalized. Apabhramsa works often followed the established patterns of Sanskrit and Prakrit literature. To understand Apabhramsa Krishna poetry, a general outline of the Jain Krishna narrative is essential. The author bases this outline on Jinasena's Sanskrit Harivamsapurana (c. 784 CE) and Hemachandra's Trishashti Shalakapurusha Charitra (c. 1165 CE).

Outline of the Jain Krishna Narrative (Based on Jinasena and Hemachandra):

• Yadava Lineage: The narrative begins with King Yadu, from whom the Yadavas descended. Vasudeva was the youngest of ten sons of Andhakavrshni. Ugrasena was the son of Bhojakavrshni.
• Vasudeva's Early Life and Exile: Vasudeva's extraordinary beauty caused women to neglect their duties. Restrained by his brother Samudravijaya, Vasudeva eventually left the city, spreading the rumor of his death. He wandered, acquired wives, and eventually married Rohini.
• Devaki and Kamsa: Vasudeva had a son, Rama (Balarama). He later returned to Shaurypur and became an archery teacher. Kamsa, the son of Ugrasena and Jivayasha, sought power from Magadha king Jarāsandha. Kamsa, revealed to be Ugrasena's son who was abandoned at birth, usurped the throne of Mathura, imprisoning his father. Vasudeva was given Devaki, Kamsa's sister, as a bride-price.
• Prophecy and Birth of Krishna: A sage prophesied that Devaki's son would cause Kamsa's downfall. Fearing this, Kamsa forced Vasudeva to bring Devaki to his residence after each birth. Vasudeva learned from the sage that the first six children would be short-lived and the seventh, Krishna, would be the killer of Kamsa. Devaki gave birth to twins twice, and on the third occasion, to Krishna and Balarama. Divine intervention (by Naimisha Deva) swapped the babies, placing dead children with Devaki and raising the real children with Alaka. Kamsa, unaware, killed the swapped infants.
• Krishna's Birth and Escape: Krishna was born on Bhadrapada Shukla Dwadashi night. Balarama took the infant, and Vasudeva shielded him from the rain. The city gates opened upon Krishna's touch. A divine bull guided them. They crossed the Yamuna, and Krishna was entrusted to Nanda and Yashoda in Gokul.
• Krishna's Childhood in Gokul: Krishna grew up in Gokul, adored by the cowherds. Kamsa, alerted by astrologers, sent demons to kill him. Krishna defeated various demons in disguise (a bird, Putana with poisoned milk, Shakatasura as a cart, Yamalarjuna as trees, Vrishabha as a bull, and a stone-throwing demon protected by Govardhana hill).
• Devaki's Visit and Balakrishna's Training: Devaki and Balarama visited Gokul to see Krishna. Balarama visited regularly to teach Krishna archery and other arts. Krishna's childhood was marked by play, including Rasa dances with cowherd girls, during which they experienced intense joy in his presence and sorrow in his absence.
• Kamsa's Suspicion and Krishna's Prowess: Kamsa, suspecting Krishna, visited Gokul. Krishna had been sent away but returned after defeating a demon and single-handedly lifting heavy pillars.
• Kamsa's Challenge: Kamsa announced challenges: to mount the lion-seated Nagashayya, string the Ajitajaya bow, and blow the Panchajanya conch, with rewards of his sister Satyabhama. Krishna succeeded in all.
• The Wrestling Match: Kamsa ordered cowherds to bring lotuses from the Yamuna, where the serpent Kaliya resided. Krishna subdued Kaliya and brought the lotuses. Kamsa then summoned Krishna and all the cowherd boys for a wrestling match, preparing his own wrestlers. Vasudeva called his brothers to Mathura.
• Krishna and Balarama's Arrival in Mathura: Balarama informed Krishna of his parentage. Both brothers, disguised as wrestlers, journeyed to Mathura. They defeated demons in disguise as a snake, a donkey, and a horse. At the city gates, they fought and killed two mad elephants.
• Defeat of Kamsa's Wrestlers and Kamsa: In the arena, Krishna killed Chaṇūra, and Balarama killed Muṣṭika. Krishna disarmed Kamsa and killed him by slamming him to the ground. Balarama dispersed Kamsa's army. Krishna reunited with his father and relatives, freed Ugrasena, and reinstated him on the throne of Mathura. Jivayasha fled to Jarāsandha. Krishna married Satyabhama, and Balarama married Revati.
• Jarāsandha's Revenge and the Founding of Dwarka: Jarāsandha sent his son Kālayavana, who was eventually killed. Jarāsandha's brother Aparājita was also killed. Jarāsandha then marched on Mathura with a large army. The Yadavas fled west. With the help of divine beings and the formation of pyres by attendant goddesses, Jarāsandha was deceived into believing the fleeing Yadavas had perished. When the Yadavas reached the sea, Indra intervened through Gautam Deva, parting the waters. Influenced by the future Tirthankara Neminatha (Samudravijaya's son), Kubera built the magnificent city of Dwarka.
• Later Events (Uttar-Krishna Charitra): The outline includes events like the abduction of Rukmini, the birth of Shamba and Pradyumna, the marriage to Jambavati, the origins of the Kuru lineage, the acquisition of Draupadi, the killing of Kichaka, Pradyumna's reunion, Shamba's marriage, battles with Jarāsandha and the Kauravas, Krishna's victory celebrations, Draupadi's abduction, the establishment of Dakshina Mathura, Neminatha's renunciation and enlightenment, his sermons, travels, the destruction of Dwarka, Krishna's death, Balarama's penance, the Pandavas' renunciation, and Neminirvana.

Introduction to Specific Apabhramsa Krishna Poets:

The author then introduces key Apabhramsa poets who contributed to Krishna literature, noting that most of their works are unpublished:

• Pre-Svayambhu Period: Information about Krishna poetry before the 9th-century poet Svayambhu is very limited. Sources include:
  • Quotations and names in Svayambhu's grammar text, Svayambhu Chhand.
  • Quotations in Bhoja's Sarasvatikanthabharana.
  • Quotations in Hemachandra's Siddha-Hema Shabdanushasana (Apabhramsa section).
  • Mentions of poets in other Apabhramsa works.
• Chaturmukha: A contemporary of Svayambhu, believed to be a powerful poet, possibly non-Jain. He likely composed epics on the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the latter necessarily containing Krishna narratives. However, definitive attribution of Krishna-related quotes to him is difficult.
• Govinda: Another notable predecessor of Svayambhu. His six verses quoted in Svayambhu Chhand are invaluable. These verses appear to be from a poetic work on Krishna's childhood. Govinda's name is mentioned alongside the prominent trio of Chaturmukha, Svayambhu, and Pushpadanta up to the 14th century. It's possible the Govinda mentioned by Dhanapala (14th century) as the author of Sanatkumar Charitra is the same. Govinda's verses are likely from his Harivamsha or Nemiantha Charitra, possibly composed entirely in the Radda meter, which may have inspired Haribhadra.
  • Govinda's Verses: The text provides examples of Govinda's verses depicting:
    • The command from Kamsa to fetch lotuses from Kaliya's lake, highlighting the danger.
    • Radha's intense love for Krishna, with Krishna's gaze always drawn to her.
    • A Gopi tormented by separation from Krishna, seeking solace by placing lotus leaves on her breasts.
    • A verse that seems related to Krishna's childhood dance with cowherd girls, comparing the sun's delight to lotuses and the moon's to water lilies.
• Svayambhu: A great poet of the 9th century. One of his two Apabhramsa epics was Harivamsha Purana or Arishtanemi Charitra. This is the oldest surviving Apabhramsa Krishna poetry. The epic has 112 sandhis (sections), with Svayambhu composing 66. The rest were completed by his son Tribhuvana and Yashahkirti Bhattarak (15th century). The Harivamsha is divided into four kandas: Yadava Kanda, Kuru Kanda, Yuddha Kanda, and Uttara Kanda. Krishna's birth to Dwarka's establishment is covered in sandhis 4-8 of the Yadava Kanda. Svayambhu followed Jinasena's narrative in some parts and Vedic traditions in others.
  • Svayambhu's depiction of Krishna's birth: The text provides a passage from Svayambhu's work describing Krishna's birth, emphasizing his power, auspicious marks, Vasudeva carrying him, Balarama holding a canopy, the gates opening by Krishna's foot, a bull guiding them, the Yamuna parting, Krishna being given to Yashoda, and Kamsa receiving a female infant in exchange.
  • Other references: The author notes that some verses attributed to Svayambhu might be from a Mahabharata-related work, dealing with Arjun's queries or the citizens of Mathura celebrating Krishna's arrival.

Conclusion:

The text highlights the significant, though fragmented, presence of Krishna poetry within Apabhramsa literature, predominantly from the Jain tradition. It emphasizes the Jain interpretation of Krishna as a human hero and traces the key narrative elements of his life as presented in Jain Puranic literature, laying the groundwork for a deeper analysis of Apabhramsa Krishna Kavya.