Apbhramsa Katha Kavyo Ki Bharatiya Sanskruti Ko Den

Here is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Apbhramsa katha Kavyo ki Bharatiya Sanskruti ko Den" (The Contribution of Apabhramsa Narrative Poems to Indian Culture) by Dr. Kasturchand Kasliwal, based on the provided pages:

The text highlights the significant contribution of Apabhramsa narrative poems to Indian culture. Apabhramsa, much like Prakrit, served as a popular vernacular language in India for centuries, evidenced by its widespread presence in Indian literature. Its prevalence grew considerably even before the 6th century CE, with mentions appearing in Puranas, grammars, and inscriptions alongside Sanskrit and Prakrit. Grammarians extensively discussed Apabhramsa in their Prakrit grammar texts. Initially evolving from regional dialects, it transformed into a poetic language by the 8th century CE, attracting major poets.

Although no works predating Swayambhu are currently available, Swayambhu's own references to contemporary and preceding poets indicate that Apabhramsa poetry was being composed and gaining literary recognition well before the 8th century. Following the 8th century, Apabhramsa poetry experienced a surge in creative output, encouraged by rulers, merchants, and avid readers who urged poets to compose in the language. This patronage not only provided support but also immense respect, leading to prolific writing in genres like poetry, biographies, narratives, Puranas, and spiritual literature. This widespread literary activity across India helped foster a sense of cultural uniformity.

For a long time, scholars believed that Apabhramsa literature had been lost. However, the publication of Richard Pischel's "Siddhahemashabdānushasan" in 1887 sparked renewed interest in Apabhramsa works. The discovery of a manuscript of "Bhavisayattakaha" by Hermann Jacobi in 1898 brought the existence of Apabhramsa literature into discussion. His subsequent German translation in 1918 further ignited the interest of Western and Indian scholars in uncovering this literature. The editing and publication of "Bhavisayattakaha" by Guṇe and Dalal in 1923 marked a turning point, leading to the discovery of numerous other Apabhramsa works in libraries across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Delhi. Today, a vast body of Apabhramsa literature exists, though much of it remains unpublished. Composition in Apabhramsa continued uninterrupted from the 8th to the 15th century, with literary production ceasing around the 17th century CE. Mahakavi Swayambhu is considered the first great poet, while Pandit Bhagvatidas is recognized as the last, with his work "Mrigankalekhacharitra" being his final composition in Delhi.

The available Apabhramsa literature is primarily narrative and biographical. Puranic literature also enjoyed popularity, with Mahakavi Pushpadanta's "Mahapurana" drawing significant attention. Apabhramsa literature inherited all the major trends from Prakrit literature, which is why, for a considerable period, Apabhramsa works were mistaken for Prakrit compositions. Similar to the vast and rich narrative literature of Prakrit, Apabhramsa narrative literature is equally abundant and deeply appealing to the masses. This literature encompasses themes of romantic love, religious observances, moral instruction, and biographies. Works like "Vilasavatikaha," "Bhavisayattakaha," "Jinadattakaha," "Shripalcharit," "Dhammapariksha," "Punnasavakaha," and "Sattavasanakaha" showcase the richness of the narrative tradition and offer insights into significant aspects of Indian culture. Many literary forms were preserved and fully realized within these works.

These narrative works provide glimpses into the social, political, economic, and cultural activities of the time, depicting both opulence and instances of poverty and subjugation. Beyond their narrative content, these poems are characterized by their poetic descriptions, portrayals of nature, aesthetic expressions, and psychological depth. They also strongly convey a life philosophy grounded in the common people.

Social Conditions: The narrative poems vividly portray the contemporary society. They detail social customs, marriage rituals, joint family systems, caste and community structures, dietary habits, adornment, and religious practices. These narrative works have been fundamental in nurturing Indian culture and have contributed to national unity.

The text elaborates on the presence of numerous castes and sub-castes. The "Jinadatta Chaupai" by Rallh Kavi lists 24 types of "nakaar" and 24 types of "makaar" named castes residing in Vasantpur. Some communities were involved in disruptive activities like causing unrest, conflict, and theft. Gambling was prevalent, with dedicated gambling houses and courtesans in cities. It was common for respectable individuals to send their children to such places before commencing their married lives. Gambling was not considered socially unacceptable; Jinadatta himself lost 11 crore in a single game.

The poems reflect marital customs similar to those of today. Marriage ceremonies involved erecting pandals, drawing rangoli, decorating auspicious pots and torans, performing circumambulations with festive music, and hosting feasts. The grand procession of the groom was a significant part of the celebration. The description of Dhanvati Seth's wedding in "Bhavisayattakaha" offers a realistic portrayal of everyday life. Dowry was customary, though sometimes the groom's side would refuse it. In "Bhavisayattakaha," rather than coveting jewels and precious stones, Dhanadatta's beautiful daughter was considered the greatest gift. Jinadatta received such substantial dowries in his four marriages that he found them difficult to manage. Shripal, the son of Kotibhatta, also received immense wealth in his marriages besides his union with Mainasundari. Kings sometimes offered half their kingdom to the groom at their daughter's wedding.

Social Customs and Practices: Polygamy was socially accepted, with the number of wives indicating wealth and good fortune. Bhavisyadatta's father had two wives, Jinadatta had four, and Shripal had more than four. Padmna received brides as gifts wherever he went, and Jeevadhara's life also involved many marriages. The hero of "Vilasavatikaha," Vilasvati, married Indravati and Pahupavati. Celebrations for the birth of a child were joyous, with generous donations, as seen on Jinadatta's birth anniversary when donations worth several crores were given.

Astrologers held high prestige in society, and their predictions were highly trusted. Even kings and emperors sometimes arranged their daughters' marriages based on these prophecies. Such predictions formed the basis for Jinadatta's marriage to Shrungarmati and Shripal's marriages to Gunmala and Madanamanchari. Marriages also occurred upon opening the doors of the Sahaskut Chaityalaya, crossing the ocean, and reaching the abodes of Vidyadharas. Shripal placed immense faith in the predictions of a "nimitik" (one who predicts based on omens).

Adornment and Aesthetics: Women had a natural inclination towards adornment and jewelry. Gun Sundari in "Shripal Kahā" adorned herself with gold jewelry and wore a gold necklace on her chest. The kanchuki (bodice) of Jinadatta's first wife, Bimalmati, alone was valued at nine crores, adorned with pearls, rubies, and diamonds.

Religious Life: Both men and women led religious lives. Deities were worshipped with the eight auspicious items. Shripal's leprosy was cured by the water used to anoint a Tirthankara's idol. Before his marriage, Gunmala visited the Sahaskut Chaityalaya. Jinadatta worshipped the uncreated chaityalayas via an aerial chariot and the Jinendradeva on Kailash. Jinadatta's father also performed daily worship of the deity. Shripal, Jeevadhara, Bhavisyadatta, Jinadatta, and other heroes embraced asceticism in their later years, achieved liberation or heavenly merit through penance, and ultimately attained salvation or heavenly pleasures. "Bhavisayattakaha" primarily aims to highlight the significance of Shrutapanchami. Shripal's life story serves as the basis for the Ashtahnika Vrata. The main purpose of "Punnasavakaha" and "Sattavasanakaha" is to instill a fondness for religion and good deeds in the readers' lives. "Sattavasanakaha" was composed to dissuade people from the seven vices. These narrative poems do not provide a clear picture of political life. Small rulers frequently engaged in conflicts with each other, as mentioned in "Jinadattacharita." Upon returning to his city with immense wealth, Jinadatta was appointed its ruler by the king. The narrative poems contain detailed descriptions of warfare and offer good information about the weapons and armor of the era. Cities had forts where defensive strategies were employed.

"Jinadattachip" mentions weapons like bows, swords, daggers, and slings. Every ruler commanded a four-limbed army. Special war drums and trumpets, along with drums, bheris, and nishans, would ignite a martial fervor among soldiers. The poet beautifully describes Shripal's war with his enemies. Kings would depart for battle on elephants, surrounded by their bodyguards.

The populace lived in awe of the king, unable to defy his orders. Even petty kings demanded substantial tributes from merchants. Bhavisyadatta offered numerous gifts to the king of Tilakdvipa upon his arrival. Wars often erupted between these kings over trivial matters, with disputes over daughters and gifts being common causes.

Economic Conditions: The narrative poems depict a consistent trade scenario across the country, with the mercantile class dominating commerce. Merchant sons would travel in caravans to trade outside their cities. They embarked on voyages to smaller islands by sea, returning with immense wealth. When Jinadatta traveled abroad for trade with Sagardatta, he was accompanied by many merchant sons carrying various goods that were expensive overseas but inexpensive domestically. They transported goods loaded on bullocks and traveled to islands by ships, often in fleets led by a chieftain or captain to whom all merchants were subordinate. "Shripalkaha" describes the vast wealth of Dhaval Seth. Bhavisyadatta, Jinadatta, and Jeevadhara were all sons of merchants who ventured abroad for trade and returned with substantial riches. While these narrative poems suggest a prosperous economic state for the populace, the concentration of wealth remained primarily within the merchant class.

Singhaladvipa was a primary center of attraction for trade. Jinadatta traveled to Singhaladvipa for trade, where the jewelry trade flourished. Barter was more prevalent than the circulation of coins. Merchants earned significant profits on these islands. Besides Singhaladvipa, "Bhavisayattakaha" also mentions islands like Madanaga, Tilaka, and Kanchanadvipa. These narrative poems also extensively describe villages and cities. In the city of Gajpur in "Bhavisayattakaha," travelers are depicted strolling in the shade of trees, enjoying sugarcane juice with laughter and banter. The description of Vasantpur city in "Jinadatta Chaupai" portrays its residents living in amity. Weavers, gardeners, and snake charmers also displayed compassion. Brahmins and Kshatriyas lived in harmony. Parks existed outside the cities. Sagardatta Seth's garden was home to various plants, including coconut and mango trees, and fruits like oranges, dates, grapes, figs, dates, betel nuts, nutmeg, cardamom, and cloves. Flowers like jasmine, jasmine, champak, rayachampak, muchukunda, maulasiri, jayapushpa, paul, and hibiscus are mentioned.

Romantic Narrative Element: The romantic narrative element is well-developed in these Apabhramsa narrative poems. The romantic poems composed in Hindi were heavily influenced by these Apabhramsa narratives. Works like "Vilasavatikaha," "Bhavisayattakaha," "Jinadattachaupai," and "Shripal Kahā" are replete with romantic themes. In "Bhavisayattakaha" and "Shripal Kahā," love blossoms between newlyweds after marriage. Bhavisyadatta, due to genuine love, cleverly wins Bhavishyanurupa and acquires Sumitra after a battle. Jinadatta is captivated by the beauty of Bimalmati, depicted as a doll, forgetting himself in his eagerness to possess the transcendent beauty. The description of Bimalmati's beauty in this context is characteristic of romantic poetry. Even after obtaining Bimalmati, Jinadatta remained immersed in her love, and upon returning from his foreign travels, he rejoiced in reuniting with his two wives who were suffering from separation due to his absence. The "Kāvasati Kathā" is a romantic narrative from beginning to end. The love depicted in this narrative poem is celebratory of love and marriage. While traveling on the highway, the prince Sanatkumar is captivated by Vilasvati's beauty, and she throws a garland around his neck from her palace window. Sanatkumar, in turn, is smitten by Vilasvati's charm and grace. Gradually, both lovers burn in the fire of love, yearning to be with each other, and meet in a garden. However, they do not consummate their love until they are bound by marriage. They endure significant separation for this. Overcome by the pain of separation from her beloved, Vilasvati sets out for the cremation ground at midnight to commit Sati. However, she is robbed by dacoits on the way and is bought by a sea merchant. Due to a shipwreck, she lands in an ashram. Coincidentally, Prince Sanatkumar, also distressed by separation from his beloved, arrives at the same ashram, considering his life meaningless without Vilasvati. Eventually, they get married in the ashram. Even after this, their willingness to embrace death upon further separation highlights the ideal love between the hero and heroine. Thus, the love stories depicted in these narrative poems have influenced some romantic narrative poems in Hindi.

Beyond these, narrative works like "Punnasavakaha," "Dhammapariksha," and "Sattavasanakaha" strive to instill virtues like good conduct, morality, and faith in good deeds in the lives of the Indian people, aligning perfectly with Indian culture. These stories elevate the standard of living for the common people and have inspired devout readers for centuries to walk the righteous path. Consequently, the contribution of these narrative poems in preserving and developing the unified nature of Indian culture is truly commendable.