Apbhramsa Katha Kavyo Ki Bharatiy Sanskruti Ko Den

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Apbhramsa Katha Kavyo ki Bharatiy Sanskruti ko Den" by Dr. Kasturchand Kasliwal:

This book, "The Contribution of Apabhramsa Narrative Poems to Indian Culture," by Dr. Kasturchand Kasliwal, highlights the significant role of Apabhramsa literature, particularly narrative poems, in shaping and reflecting Indian culture.

The author begins by establishing Apabhramsa as a vernacular or folk language of India for centuries, enjoying immense popularity in Indian literature. Its prevalence predates the 6th century BCE, with mentions appearing alongside Sanskrit and Prakrit in ancient texts, grammars, and inscriptions. Initially developing as regional dialects, by the 8th century CE, Apabhramsa had evolved into a literary language, attracting prominent poets. While no works pre-dating the poet Svayambhu are extant, his references to earlier and contemporary poets confirm that poetry in Apabhramsa flourished and gained literary recognition before the 8th century.

Following the 8th century, Apabhramsa poetry received substantial patronage from rulers, merchants, and scholarly individuals, leading to the creation of numerous epics, biographies, narratives, Puranas, and spiritual literature. This widespread literary activity, spanning from North to South and East to West India, fostered a sense of cultural uniformity. For a long time, scholars believed this literature was lost. However, Richard Pischel's publication of the Siddha-Hema-Shabdānuśāsana in 1887 sparked renewed interest. The discovery of a manuscript of the Bhavisayattakaha by Hermann Jacobi, and its subsequent German publication in 1918, further ignited the search for Apabhramsa works. The efforts of Guṇe and Dalal in editing and publishing the Bhavisayattakaha in 1923 led to the rediscovery of numerous Apabhramsa texts in libraries across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Delhi. Although a vast body of Apabhramsa literature has since emerged, a significant portion remains unpublished. This creative period spanned from the 8th to the 15th century, with literary production continuing until around the 17th century. Mahakavi Svayambhu is recognized as the first prominent poet, while Pandit Bhagvatidas is credited as the last, with his work Mrigankalekhacharit being his final composition in Delhi.

The existing Apabhramsa literature is predominantly narrative and biographical. Puranic literature also held popularity, with Mahakavi Puṣpadanta's Mahapurana attracting scholarly attention. Apabhramsa literature inherited the main trends of Prakrit literature, leading to its initial categorization with Prakrit works. Just as Prakrit literature is rich in narrative content and appeals to popular taste, Apabhramsa narrative literature is equally rich, containing all elements that resonate with the masses. It encompasses romantic narratives, stories of religious vows, didactic tales, and biographies. Works like Vilās Kahā, Bhavisayattakaha, Jindatta Kahā, Śrīpāl Charit, Dhamma Parikkha, Puṇṇāsava Kahā, Sattvasaṇa Kahā, and Siddha Chakra Kahā demonstrate the richness of its narrative tradition and offer insights into key genres of Indian culture. These narratives preserve and fully uphold various literary traditions. They provide glimpses into social, political, economic, and cultural activities, depicting both prosperity and the poverty and subjugation prevalent in the country. Beyond the narrative itself, the poems are characterized by poetic descriptions, depictions of nature, aesthetic expression, and psychological depth. The strong influence of a people-centric life philosophy is also evident.

Social Conditions: These narrative poems offer vivid portrayals of contemporary society, detailing social status, marriage customs, joint families, caste systems, food, jewelry, and religious practices. They have served as vital pillars of Indian culture, unifying the entire nation. The text delves into specific folk elements:

• Caste and Social Stratification: The society comprised numerous castes and sub-castes. The Jindatta Chaupai by Kavi Rall mentions 24 types of "nakar" and 24 types of "makar" castes residing in Basantpur. Some groups were prone to conflict, theft, and disturbance.
• Gambling and Prostitution: Gambling was widespread, with dedicated gambling houses and courtesans in cities. It was not considered socially reprehensible, with even respectable individuals sometimes sending their children to such places before entering married life. Jindatta famously lost 11 crore in a single gamble.
• Marriage Customs: Wedding rituals mirrored those of today, involving the erection of marriage pavilions, drawing decorative patterns (rangavali), adorning auspicious pots (kalash) and door hangings (bandanwar), the circling of the bride and groom with auspicious music, and feasts. The description of Dhanavai Seth's wedding in Bhavisayattakaha provides a realistic portrayal of folk life. Dowry was common, though sometimes refused by the groom's side. In Bhavisayattakaha, rather than coveting jewels, Dhanaṁdat's beautiful daughter was considered the greatest gift. Jindatta received such substantial dowries in his four marriages that he found it difficult to manage. Shriplā also received considerable wealth in his marriages besides his union with Maina Sundari. Kings occasionally gifted half their kingdom to the groom upon their daughter's marriage.
• Polygamy: Polygamy was accepted and seen as a sign of prosperity and good fortune. Futuredatt's father had two wives, Jindatta had four, and Shriplā had more than four. Padmā, wherever he went, received brides as gifts. Jivandhara's life was also marked by numerous marriages. The hero of Vilāsavai Kahā, Vilasavati, married Indravati and Pahupavati.
• Celebrations and Philanthropy: The birth of a son was celebrated with great joy, and alms were distributed to the disabled. Jindatta's birth celebration included significant donations.
• Astrology and Prophecy: Astrologers held considerable prestige, and their predictions were highly trusted, even influencing royal decisions regarding marriages, as seen in the marriages of Jindatta with Shrungarmati and Shripla with Gunamala and Madanamanchari. Prophecies also dictated events like the opening of temple doors, sea crossings, and reaching the lands of Vidyadharas. Shripla placed his complete faith in a diviner's prophecy.
• Adornment and Jewelry: Women had a natural inclination for adornment and jewelry. Gun Sundari in Shriplakaha decorated herself with gold ornaments, wearing a gold necklace. Jindatta's first wife, Bimalmati, had a bodice that cost 9 crore, adorned with pearls, rubies, and diamonds.

Religious Life: Both men and women led religious lives. Deities were worshipped with eight auspicious items. Shripla's leprosy was cured by the water used to anoint a Tirthankara's image. Gunamala visited the Sahasrakuta Chaityalaya before her marriage. Jindatta ascended via aerial vehicles to venerate artificial Chaityalayas and Jinendra Dev on Kailash. Jindatta's father also performed daily worship. Shripla, Jivandhara, Bhavishyadatta, Jindatta, and other heroes embraced asceticism in their later years, attaining liberation or heavenly abodes through penance. Bhavisayattakaha aims to highlight the glory of Shrutapanchami, while Shriplakaha is based on the Ashtahnika Vrata. Puṇṇāsava Kahā and Sattvasaṇa Kahā intended to foster devotion and faith in good deeds, with Sattvasaṇa Kahā specifically warning against the seven vices. These narrative poems offer little insight into the political life of the era, which was characterized by numerous small rulers constantly at war with each other, as exemplified in Jindatta Charit. When Jindatta returned to his city with immense wealth, the local king made him the owner of half his kingdom. These poems extensively describe warfare, including contemporary weapons. Cities had forts used for military fortifications.

• Warfare and Military: Jindatta Chaupai mentions weapons like bows, swords, spears, and slings. Each ruler possessed a Chaturangi Sena (an army comprising elephants, cavalry, chariots, and infantry). War trumpets were used, and drums, trumpets (bheri), and banners (nishān) amplified the soldiers' battle fervor. Shripla's battle with his enemies is vividly described, with the king leading the charge on an elephant, surrounded by bodyguards.

Public Reverence for Royalty: The populace held the king in awe, with no one daring to disobey his commands. Even minor kings received significant tributes from merchants. Bhavishyadatta, upon arriving at Tilakadvipa, presented the king with lavish gifts. Wars between these rulers often erupted over trivial matters, with daughters and gifts being common causes for conflict.

Economic Conditions: These narrative poems depict a uniform economic situation across the country, with trade being entirely controlled by the merchant class. Merchant sons would embark on trading expeditions in groups, traveling by sea to small islands to conduct trade and return with immense wealth. Jindatta, along with Sagardatta, traveled abroad for trade, accompanied by many merchant sons carrying various goods that were expensive abroad but cheap domestically. They transported goods on bullocks and utilized ships for island journeys. These fleets of ships had a leader or captain under whom all merchants operated. Shriplakaha describes the vast wealth of Dhawal Seth. Bhavishyadatta, Jindatta, and Jivandhara were all sons of merchants who traveled abroad and returned with considerable fortunes. While the general economic condition of the populace appears to have been good, wealth was concentrated within the merchant class.

Singhaladvipa was a major hub for trade, attracting Jindatta for its lucrative gem trade. Barter was more prevalent than the use of currency. Merchants earned substantial profits on these islands. Besides Singhaladvipa, Bhavisayattakaha also describes Madanagadvipa, Tilakadvipa, and Kanchanadvipa.

The poems also provide detailed descriptions of villages and cities. In Gajpur city in Bhavisayattakaha, travelers relax in the shade of trees, enjoy sugarcane juice, and engage in pleasantries. The description of Basantpur city in Jindatta Chaupai portrays its residents living in harmony. Even artisans like weavers, gardeners, weavers of silk thread, and snake charmers were depicted as compassionate. Brahmins and Kshatriyas lived in mutual harmony. Cities were surrounded by gardens, such as Sagardatta Seth's garden, which boasted a variety of plants, including coconut and mango trees, and fruits like oranges, dates, grapes, figs, dates, betel nuts, nutmeg, and cardamom. Notable flowers mentioned include marjoram, jasmine, champak, raichampak, muchkund, maulsiri, jayapushpa, paul, and hibiscus.

Romantic Narrative Elements: These Apabhramsa narrative poems exhibit well-developed romantic themes. The influence of Apabhramsa narrative poetry on the creation of romantic epics in Hindi is significant. Vilāsavai Kahā, Bhavisayattakaha, Jindatta Chaupai, and Shriplakaha are replete with romantic elements. In Bhavisayattakaha and Shriplakaha, love blossoms between newlyweds after marriage. Bhavishyadatta skillfully wins Bhavishyanurupa due to true love and acquires Sumitra after a battle. Jindatta becomes captivated by the beauty of Bimalmati, depicted as a doll, forgetting himself and becoming eager to obtain the transcendent beauty. The description of Bimalmati's beauty in this context is characteristic of romantic poetry. Even after obtaining Bimalmati, Jindatta remained immersed in her love, and upon returning from his foreign travels, he rejoiced in reuniting with Bimalmati alongside his two other wives, who were immersed in the fire of separation. Vilāsavai Kahā is entirely a romantic narrative from beginning to end, focusing on pre-marital love. While traveling on the highway, Princess Vilasavati is captivated by Prince Sanatkumar's appearance and throws a garland of flowers around his neck from her palace window. Sanatkumar is also enchanted by Vilasavati's beauty, and both lovers burn in the fire of love, longing to be together. They eventually meet in a garden but do not consummate their love until they are married. They endure significant separation. Overwhelmed by longing for her beloved, Vilasavati heads to the cremation ground at midnight to become a Sati but is robbed by bandits along the way and bought by a sea merchant. Due to a shipwreck, she reaches an ashram. Coincidentally, Prince Sanatkumar, also distressed by his separation from his beloved, arrives at the same ashram, believing his life is meaningless without Vilasavati. They eventually marry in the ashram. Their willingness to embrace death upon further separation highlights the ideal love between the hero and heroine. Thus, the romantic plots depicted in these narrative poems have influenced some romantic epics in Hindi literature.

Beyond these romantic tales, works like Puṇṇāsava Kahā, Dhamma Parikkha, and Sattvasaṇa Kahā have strived to instill virtues, morality, and faith in good deeds in the lives of the Indian populace, aligning perfectly with Indian culture. These stories elevate the standard of public life and have inspired devout readers for centuries to walk the path of righteousness. In this way, these narrative poems have made a commendable contribution to preserving and developing the unified nature of Indian culture.