Amru Shatak Ki Sanskrutik Prushthabhumi - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text about the cultural background of the Amaru Shatak:

The text, "Amaru Shatak ki Sanskrutik Prushthabhumi" by Dr. Ajay Mitra Shastri, delves into the cultural context and significance of the Amaru Shatak, a renowned collection of Sanskrit love poems.

1. Significance and Authorship:

The Amaru Shatak is considered an unparalleled work among Sanskrit lyrical love poetry from the post-Kalidasa period.
Amaru's verses are frequently quoted in Sanskrit poetics, highlighting their popularity and influence.
Amaru Shatak holds a position comparable to the Gathasaptashati of Hala Satavahana in Prakrit literature, for its ability to capture diverse emotions and situations of love within the scope of a single verse.
Anandavardhana, a prominent literary critic, recognized Amaru's free verses as equally potent as epic poems, stating that Amaru's love-filled verses are, in essence, "prabandhas" (narrative poems). A commentator even suggested that a single verse by Amaru is equivalent to a hundred narrative poems.

2. The Enigmatic Amaru:

Like many ancient literary figures, Amaru's life and time are largely unknown, leading to the proliferation of legends.
One popular legend, mentioned in Shankardigvijaya, suggests that Adi Shankaracharya, to gain knowledge of Kamashastra (the science of love) to answer the philosophical questions of Bharti, Mandana Mishra's wife, entered the dead body of King Amaru. He then reportedly had romantic encounters with a hundred women and wrote a unique treatise on Kamashastra. This legend led to the belief that Shankaracharya, disguised as King Amaru of Kashmir, was the author of Amaru Shatak. However, this legend is dismissed as historically insignificant and baseless.
The origin of Amaru is also unknown. While some scholars have suggested a South Indian origin, this is considered unsubstantiated. Conversely, the phonetic similarity of Amaru's name with figures like Shankuk and the fact that early poetic critics who cited Amaru were from Kashmir suggest a possible Kashmiri origin. However, without definitive proof, no opinion can be considered fully authoritative.

3. Professional Background:

A verse quoted by Peterson from a commentary on Amaru Shatak suggests Amaru was a goldsmith by profession. While not impossible, this claim is difficult to verify due to the lack of certainty about the commentator's knowledge of Amaru's life.

4. Religious Affiliation:

Amaru begins his Shatak with invocations to Ambika (verse 1) and Shambhu (verse 2), unequivocally indicating his adherence to Shaivism (worship of Lord Shiva).

5. Chronological Placement:

Anandavardhana (circa 850 CE) is the first to mention Amaru by name. Given Amaru's widespread fame during Anandavardhana's time, he must have lived much earlier.
Vamana (circa 800 CE), even before Anandavardhana, quoted three verses from Amaru Shatak without naming the poet or his work, suggesting that Amaru lived no later than the first half of the 8th century CE, and possibly much earlier.

6. Textual Variations:

Amaru Shatak exists in multiple versions, differing in the number and order of verses. R. Simon identified four main versions: South Indian, Eastern (Bengali), Western, and a Miscellaneous version.
Scholars have noted that only 51 verses are common across all versions, but with careful analysis, this number can increase significantly when considering the exclusion of corrupt texts. The Western version, with the Rasika Sanjivani commentary, is generally considered closest to the original text.
The article uses the Kaumudini edition with Arjunavarmadeva's commentary as its base, incorporating verses from all available versions to present a comprehensive corpus of 136 verses. Verses found in other Sanskrit subhashita (epigram) collections but not in any standard edition of Amaru Shatak are excluded due to uncertainty about their attribution to Amaru.

7. Cultural Depiction:

Urban Culture: Amaru Shatak is a product of "Nagara Sanskriti" (urban culture). The characters breathe the air of city life, accustomed to its comforts and displaying urban refinement in their emotions and expressions. However, unlike many courtly Sanskrit works, Amaru Shatak depicts romantic sentiments and situations experienced by common people, making it more poignant.
Moral Stance: The Shatak is presented as morally elevated compared to many other poetic works. It portrays the love life of married men and women. While polygamy was permissible, no woman is depicted as loving anyone other than her husband. The focus is on marital fidelity and the joy derived from a husband's affection. Conflicts between lovers are common but usually fleeting and easily resolved. Amaru's perspective does not endorse unrestrained or illicit love.
Lifestyle and Social Norms: Due to the limited scope of the poetry, it doesn't offer the diverse portrayal of life found in epics or plays. However, it provides glimpses into medieval Kashmiri life, assuming Amaru's origin there and his 8th-century timeframe. The emphasis on love life leads to scattered details about women's attire, jewelry, cosmetics, and hairstyles. Other aspects of contemporary life are minimally depicted.

8. Religious and Mythological References:

Amaru, being a Shaiva, begins with invocations to Shiva and Ambika. There are references to Shiva's destruction of Tripuras (three cities of demons) and the grief of Tripuras' women.
Mentions of Harihara (a composite form of Vishnu and Shiva), Skanda (Kartikeya), and Yama are present. Yama is described as skilled in counting days and merciless.
A verse (36) alludes to the mythological churning of the ocean by the gods.
Kamadeva (the god of love) is referenced using terms like "Manthana," "Makardhvaja," and "Manoja," and is described as a great archer of the three worlds.

9. Social Customs and Beliefs:

Pilgrimage: The tradition of offering libations to the deceased at pilgrimage sites was popular.
Poverty: There are hints of the impoverished sections of society, describing a poor housewife in a dilapidated house during the monsoon and water entering through holes in a storm-battered hut.
Social Roles: Mentions of wet nurses ("dhātrī") and elders ("gurujana") are present.
Diet: Ghee and honey were important food items. Consuming salty water is said to increase thirst.
Alcohol Consumption: Drinking alcohol was common, with wine being consumed from cups. Women also indulged in drinking, and one verse describes a woman intoxicated by wine.

10. Fashion and Adornment:

Textiles: Chinese silk ("Chīnāṃśuka") was popular in India from ancient times. The mention of only this garment in the Shatak suggests its popularity, especially among women, in the early medieval period.
Clothing: Women's attire typically consisted of two garments: an lower garment similar to a dhoti and an upper garment ("uttarīya") worn over the shoulders. The lower garment was fastened at the waist with a knot ("nivī" or "nivībandha").
Stitched Garments: Stitched garments like "kañcuka" or "kañculikā" (similar to a choli) are mentioned. The expansion of the bust causing seams of the kañcuka to break is noted. The kañculikā was worn with a knot.
Fabric Edges: The term "aṃśukapallava" is used for the end piece of fabric, likely a dhoti.

11. Jewelry:

Ear Ornaments: Earrings ("kuṇḍala") were worn, sometimes multiple in one ear ("kuṇḍala-stavaka"). Padmaraga (ruby) was worn in the ears.
Arm Ornaments: Armlets ("keyūra") were worn on the arms.
Necklaces: Pearl necklaces ("tārahāra" or "guptāhāra") were worn on the chest. The necklace is described as fuel for the fire of love.
Bracelets: Bracelets ("valaya") were worn on the hands. A common poetic trope describes bracelets becoming loose or falling off due to weakness when the beloved is about to depart.
Waist Ornaments: Waistbands ("mekhalā" or "kāñcī") were worn around the waist, serving as decoration and to hold the lower garment. Bells ("maṇi") were attached to these, producing a tinkling sound.
Anklets: Anklets ("nūpura") were worn on the feet. Sometimes, these also had bells, producing a sweet sound with movement.

12. Craftsmanship and Materials:

Goldsmiths' Lane: The term "viśikhā" is mentioned, referring to a street of goldsmiths.
Tools: A pincer-like tool ("saṃdaṃśaka" or "saṃḍasī") used by goldsmiths is also mentioned.
Gems: Chandrakanta (moonstone) and Vajra (diamond) are mentioned. Diamond's hardness is associated with the word "vajramaya" (like diamond) used for a hard-hearted person.

13. Floral Adornments:

Flowers and leaves were also used as ornaments. Amaru mentions garlands of flowers and ear ornaments made of leaves adorned with flowers, which attracted bees.

14. Hairstyles:

Dhammilla: This refers to a hair bun, often decorated with fruits and pearls, usually tied at the top of the head. It's frequently mentioned in literature and art. The text mentions the Dhammilla decorated with jasmine flowers.
Alakāvali: This style involves arranging curly locks of hair to fall on the forehead. This hairstyle is depicted in terracotta figures from Ahichhatra. The text also mentions a sculpture of Parvati from a Shiva temple in Ahichhatra showing both Dhammilla and Alakāvali.
Kabari (Braid): Another hairstyle was braiding the hair, also adorned with flowers.
Dishevelled Hair: During separation, women were sometimes depicted with long, loose strands of hair.

15. Cosmetics and Beauty Practices:

Body Perfumes: Various fragrant substances were applied to the body, including sandalwood, kumkum, and aguru. Terms like "paṅka," "aṅgaṇa," and "vilepana" are used for these applications.
Lip Color: Chewing betel leaves ("pāna" or "tāmbūla") was a practice to create an attractive redness in the lips.
Eye Makeup: Kohl ("kajjala" or "āñjana") was applied to the eyes. Red pigment was used on the lips.
Facial Decorations: Patterns of flowers and leaves were drawn on the cheeks using fragrant substances, referred to as "viśeṣaka" and "patrāli."
Foot Color: Red lac dye ("ālataka" or "lākṣā") was applied to the feet.
Bathing: Bathing with a shower or fountain is mentioned.

16. Entertainment:

Pet Birds: The custom of keeping pet parrots in homes is mentioned, with their ability to imitate human speech being a subject of several verses. They were fond of eating pomegranates.
Playing with Lotuses: Women often played with lotuses ("līlātāmarasa"), and some verses describe them playfully hitting their lovers with lotuses.

17. Home Decorations:

Homes were decorated with festoons ("bandanavāra" or "bandanamālikā"), especially for the arrival of loved ones, often made with lotuses.

18. Household Items:

Mentioned items include beds, seating mats, bedsheets, lamps, various types of pots and vessels (including golden ones), and fuel.

19. Etiquette and Customs:

Farewell Rituals: Upon a loved one's departure, auspicious ceremonies ("puṇyāha") were performed, and well wishes for a safe journey were offered.
Welcoming Guests: Festoons were adorned, bouquets of flowers were presented, and water offerings ("argha") were given to welcome honored guests.
Prayer and Petition: The practice of joining hands in supplication ("añjali") was followed.
Charity: The custom of offering water from joined hands during donation was ancient and is frequently mentioned in copper plate inscriptions, signifying ownership transfer.

20. Music and Art:

Dindima: The beating of a "ḍauṛī" (a type of drum) is mentioned.
Painting Principles: The fundamental principles of painting, such as "rekhānyāsa" (outline setting), are referenced.

21. Literary Allusions:

The Shatak contains a single reference to ancient literature, mentioning Dhananjaya (Arjuna) being capable of returning cows, an allusion to the Mahabharata story of the Pandavas protecting Virat's cows.

22. Gestures (Mudras):

The "khaṭkamukha" mudra is mentioned in the first verse, a gesture described in Bharata's Natyashastra.

23. Political and Military Information:

The Amaru Shatak provides no information about political thought or organization. Only mentions of weapons like bows, arrows, bowstrings, and the "Brahmastra" are found. "Skandhavara" (encampment) is also mentioned. The anointment of a king seated on an altar, flanked by banana stalks, is described.

24. Residential Spaces:

Sleeping chambers ("vāsa-gṛha" or "śayanakaṣa") were essential parts of the house. Courtyard gardens ("āṅgaṇa-vāṭikā") were common, including large trees like mangoes.

25. Fauna and Flora:

Animals and Birds: Cows, deer, peacocks, wagtails, parrots, bees, and female bees are mentioned. The comparison of women's eyes to those of deer is a common poetic convention. The description of peacocks raising their plumes to watch raindrops and bees buzzing around flowers and leaves is noted.
Flowers: Lotuses are the most frequently mentioned flower, with various names like "utpala," "tāmarasa," "nalina," "rajiva," "śatadala," and "paṅka." Stems and leaves of lotuses are also referred to. Blue lotuses are mentioned for decorating festoons. Jasmine blossoms in summer were used for adorning hair. Other flowers like kund, jati, mango blossoms, pomegranate fruits, kalhara, saptachhada, kandala, and banana stalks are also mentioned.