Amru Shatak Ki Sanskrutik Prushthabhumi

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text about the cultural background of the Amaru Shatak, authored by Dr. Ajay Mitra Shastri:

Overview of Amaru Shatak and its Author

The Amaru Shatak is an unparalleled collection of erotic lyrical poems in Sanskrit literature, praised for its concise yet evocative portrayal of various moods and situations of love. Its author, Amaru (also known by variations like Amruk, Amar, Amarak, and Amrak), is highly regarded, with his verses being frequently quoted in Sanskrit poetics, second only to Kalidasa. Amaru's fame is such that poets like Anandavardhana considered his short, lyrical verses as profound and self-contained as longer narrative poems (prabandhas), with one critic stating a single verse of Amaru equals a hundred prabandhas.

The Enigma of Amaru's Life and Identity

Unfortunately, like many ancient authors, Amaru's life and time are shrouded in mystery, leading to various legends. One popular but historically baseless legend suggests that Adi Shankaracharya, in order to gain knowledge of Kama Shastra (the science of love) to answer questions from Mandana Mishra's wife, Bharati, entered the dead body of King Amaru. He then lived among 100 royal maidens and authored a treatise on Kama Shastra. This myth led to the belief that Amaru Shatak was written by Shankaracharya disguised as King Amaru of Kashmir. However, this is considered apocryphal and lacking historical significance.

Determining Amaru's geographical origin is also challenging. While some scholars suggest he was from South India, this theory is based on weak arguments. Conversely, the phonetic similarity of his name to that of Shankuka, and the fact that early poets who quoted him were from Kashmir, point towards a Kashmiri origin. However, without definitive proof, no conclusion can be considered entirely authentic.

There's also a mention from a commentator that Amaru belonged to the goldsmith (Swarnakar) caste, but this is speculative due to the commentator's distance in time from the poet.

Religious Affiliation and Dating

Amaru begins his Shatak with salutations to Ambika (Goddess Parvati) in the first verse and Shambhu (Lord Shiva) in the second, clearly indicating his Shaivite affiliation.

The earliest known mention of Amaru by name is by Anandavardhana (around 850 CE). Given Amaru's considerable fame in Anandavardhana's time, it's evident he lived much earlier. Vamana (around 800 CE) also quotes three verses from Amaru Shatak, albeit without naming the poet or the work. This suggests Amaru lived no later than the first half of the 8th century CE, and possibly much earlier.

Manuscript Variations and the Original Text

Amaru Shatak exists in multiple versions, with variations in the number and order of verses. R. Simon identified four main recensions: South Indian, Eastern/Bengali, Western, and a Miscellaneous version. Only 51 verses are common across all. However, scholarly analysis suggests that if we exclude the mixed version, the number of common verses increases to 72. Further critical analysis suggests that excluding corrupt texts like the Bengali version, the common verses among the Western, Southern, and Rudramadeva recensions could be as high as 84.

The article leans towards the Western recension, particularly the one with the Rasika Sanjeevani commentary, as being closest to the original text, citing its ancient nature and critical analysis. However, due to the lack of definitive information about the original text, the author has utilized verses found across all known editions. The Kaumala edition with Arjunavarmadeva's commentary is used as the base, incorporating additional verses from other recensions. Ultimately, the Amaru Shatak, when all versions are considered, comprises 136 verses. Verses found in other Sanskrit anthologies attributed to Amaru, but not in any of the Shatak editions, are excluded due to uncertainty about their attribution.

Cultural Depictions in Amaru Shatak

The Amaru Shatak is a product of Nagar Culture, depicting men and women accustomed to the comforts and refinements of urban life. Their emotions and expressions are marked by sophistication. A key distinction from many other Sanskrit works is that while most are symbolic of courtly culture, Amaru Shatak portrays the romantic sentiments and situations experienced by ordinary people, making it more relatable and poignant.

From a moral perspective, Amaru Shatak is considered elevated. It portrays the love lives of legally married couples. While polygamy was permitted and husbands might not have been entirely devoted to all their wives, no woman is depicted as loving another man besides her husband. Their happiness is tied to their husband's affection, and their sorrow to his absence. Conflicts between lovers are common, forming the subject of many verses, but they are usually fleeting and easily resolved. Amaru's worldview does not accommodate unbridled or illicit love.

The scope of the text is limited, naturally not reflecting the full diversity of life seen in epics or plays. The author's unknown origin and time period make it difficult to pinpoint the specific region or era depicted. However, assuming a Kashmiri origin and a pre-mid-8th century dating, the work broadly portrays medieval Kashmiri life. Due to its focus on love, specific mentions are made of women's attire, jewelry, cosmetics, and hairstyles. Information on other aspects of contemporary life is scarce.

Religious and Mythological References

Beyond the initial Shaivite salutations, references to Lord Shiva's destruction of Tripur (three cities of demons) and the subsequent grief of Tripur's women are made (verse 2). Harihara (a combined form of Vishnu and Shiva), Skanda (Kartikeya), and Yama (the god of death, described as skilled in counting days and ruthless) are also mentioned. The myth of the churning of the ocean by the gods is alluded to in verse 36. As expected in a love-themed work, Kama (the god of love) is referenced using terms like Manthana, Makardhwaja, and Manoj, and is called the great archer of the three worlds.

Social Customs and Practices

The practice of offering water oblations (toyanjali) to the deceased at pilgrimage sites is popular (verse 132).

There are glimpses of the poorer sections of society, such as a description of a poor housewife in a dilapidated house during the rainy season (verse 118) and water entering through holes in a storm-ravaged hut (verse 126). Mentions of wet nurses (dhatri) and elders/teachers (gurus) are also present.

Diet and Daily Life

Ghee and honey were important components of the diet. It's noted that drinking saltwater increases thirst. Alcohol consumption was common, consumed from cups, and women did not hesitate to partake. Intoxicated women are also mentioned.

Clothing and Fashion

Chinese silk (chinansuka) was highly popular in India from ancient times, with its earliest known mention in Kautilya's Arthashastra. The Amaru Shatak's sole mention of this fabric highlights its popularity, especially among women in the early medieval period. Women's typical attire likely consisted of two garments: a lower garment worn like a dhoti and an upper garment (uttariya) draped over the shoulders. The lower garment was secured at the waist with a knot.

Stitched garments were also worn. The kanchuka or kanchulika, similar to modern blouses, is mentioned. The tearing of stitching seams due to the expansion of breasts is noted. The kanchulika was tied with a knot, which some commentators associate with a Southern style of blouse. The term ansukapallava refers to the end of a cloth, possibly a dhoti.

Jewelry and Adornments

The Shatak mentions various types of jewelry worn by women:

• Earrings (kundala), sometimes multiple in one ear (kundala-stavaka).
• Rubies (padmaraga mani) worn in the ears.
• Armlets (keyura) worn on the arms.
• Pearl necklaces (tarahara, guptahara) worn on the chest.
• Bracelets (valaya) worn on the hands, with their loosening or falling off due to the beloved's departure becoming a poetic convention.
• Waistbands (mekhala, kanchee) adorned the waist and helped secure the lower garment. These often had small bells (mani) that produced a tinkling sound.
• Anklets (nupura), sometimes also fitted with bells, producing melodious sounds when the feet moved.

Craftsmanship and Materials

Mentions of Vishikha (a street of goldsmiths) and Sandamsaka (pincers used by goldsmiths) are noted. Chandrakanta (moonstone) and Vajra (diamond) are mentioned, with vajra being known for its hardness.

Use of Natural Elements as Adornments

Flowers and leaves were also worn as ornaments. This includes garlands of flowers and ear ornaments (karnapoor) adorned with buds, attracting bees.

Hairstyles

Various hairstyling methods were prevalent. The text mentions Dhamailla (a bun, often decorated with flowers and pearls, usually worn on the top of the head) and Alakavali (hairstyles where curly locks fall on the forehead). The decoration of the dhamailla with jasmine flowers is noted. Another hairstyle was the kabari or braid, also decorated with flowers. Long, disheveled locks were a sign of separation.

Cosmetics and Beauty Practices

Women were very interested in cosmetics. Various fragrant substances like sandalwood, saffron, and aguru were applied to the body. Terms like pank, angan, and vilepana are used for these applications. The application of cosmetics to the breasts is frequently mentioned.

The practice of eating paan or tambool was ancient, used to create an attractive redness in the lips. Kajal or anjana was applied to the eyes. Lipstick was also used. Designs of flowers and leaves were painted on the cheeks using fragrant substances, referred to as visheshaka and patrali. Alakta or lākṣā (red dye) was applied to the feet.

Hygiene

Bathing with a fountain or spray is mentioned.

Recreation and Entertainment

Mentions of entertainment are scarce. The custom of keeping parrots at home and their skill in mimicking human speech is noted. Women often played with lotuses (leelataamarasa), and sometimes playfully struck their beloveds with them.

Household Decorations

Bandanwar (festive door hangings) were used to decorate homes, especially to welcome loved ones, with lotuses also used for this purpose.

Household Utensils and Objects

Mention is made of beds (talpa), mats (asana), sheets (prachhadapata), lamps (pradipa), water pots (kalasha, kumbha), and fuel. Golden pots (shatakumbha kumbha) are also mentioned.

Etiquette and Social Conventions

Certain social courtesies are described:

• Punyaaha (a ritual for auspiciousness) was performed when someone departed for a journey.
• Festive door hangings, bouquets of flowers, and water offerings were used to welcome honored guests.
• Joining palms in añjali was a custom when making requests or prayers.
• Offering water from cupped hands during donations was an ancient practice indicating ownership.

Arts and Crafts

The beating of a dindima (a type of drum) is mentioned. The fundamental principles of painting, specifically rekhanysa (laying down lines), are discussed.

Literary References

A single reference to ancient literature mentions Dhananjaya (Arjuna) being capable of returning cows, likely an allusion to the Mahabharata story of the Pandavas protecting Virat's cows.

Other Notable Mentions

• The Khatkamukha mudra (a hand gesture) from Bharata's Natya Shastra is mentioned.
• No information on political thought or organization is available, only references to weapons like bows, arrows, bowstrings, and Brahmastra. Skandhavara (encampment) is also mentioned.
• The ritualistic anointing of a king seated on a platform (vedi) with golden pots is described.
• Vardhamana (chamber or bedroom) and Angana-vatika (courtyard garden) are part of the home.
• Various animals and birds are mentioned, including cows, deer, peacocks, parrots, bees, and butterflies. The comparison of women's eyes to deer's eyes is a common poetic trope.
• Flowers are prominently featured, especially lotuses, with many synonyms used. Jasmine is mentioned as blooming in summer and used for hair decoration. Other flowers like Kund, Jati, Mango blossoms, Pomegranate fruit, Kallhara, Saptachhada, Kandala, and Banana plants are also referenced.