Akbar Ki Dharmik Niti - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Akbar ki Dharmik Niti" (Akbar's Religious Policy) by Nina Jain:

This document is a master's thesis submitted to Jiwaji University, Gwalior, in 1977, by Kumari Nina Jain, under the guidance of Prof. R.N. Tig Nath, Head of the History Department at Maharani Lakshmibai Arts and Commerce College, Gwalior. The thesis focuses on the religious policy of Mughal Emperor Akbar.

Introduction (Page 5) The author introduces Akbar as one of the greatest rulers in Indian history, emphasizing his role in fostering cooperation and compassion during a period often characterized by the harshness of Muslim conquerors and their policies towards indigenous rulers and the populace. Akbar's greatness is attributed to his religious policy, which stemmed from his internal curiosity and desire for novelty, bringing a message of peace to a turbulent and intolerant medieval era. This unique approach to religious tolerance deeply intrigued the author, leading to this research. The thesis aims to provide a concise overview of Akbar's religious policy, acknowledging the vastness of the subject.

Chapter 1: Akbar's Personality (Pages 8, 33-53) This chapter details Akbar's personality and life.

Background: Akbar was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, with ties to Central Asia and Persia.
Physical Description: Contemporary accounts by figures like Father Monserrate and Jahangir describe him as physically imposing, with a fair but slightly tanned complexion, a broad forehead, sparkling eyes, and a commanding presence.
Character and Habits: Akbar was described as amiable, cheerful, and free from arrogance. He was a generous ruler who met with people from all walks of life, earning popularity and respect. He possessed a strong sense of justice, even vowing to judge himself if he committed an unjust act. While generally in control of his emotions, he could be severe in anger. He was an avid hunter, skilled rider, and enjoyed various sports and entertainments.
Dietary Habits: Akbar was a moderate eater, often consuming only one main meal a day. Notably, he became a vegetarian later in life, influenced possibly by Hindu and Jain traditions, believing it was wrong to treat one's stomach as a "cage for animals." He also abstained from alcohol and opium in his later years.
Literacy: While there's debate about his formal literacy, Akbar was not uneducated. Despite his inability to read or write fluently, he possessed a remarkable intellect and memory, absorbing knowledge through listening to scholars and discussions. He was well-versed in history, theology, and philosophy.
Personal Relationships: Akbar was a loving father, brother, and husband. He treated his family and companions with affection and respect, particularly mourning the loss of his close friends like Birbal and Abul Fazl.
Beliefs: Akbar believed in reason and logic, distrusting blind imitation. He had a unique blend of rationalism and superstition, believing in omens and auspicious days. He saw his duty as serving the people and considered it a form of divine worship. His relentless search for truth and his interactions with various spiritual figures shaped his spiritual outlook.
Ambition and Governance: Akbar was an ambitious ruler driven by a desire for conquest and the establishment of a stable empire. He believed in preparing his army for war and ruling with justice and compassion for all his subjects, regardless of their religion. He implemented policies for the welfare of his subjects, such as building reservoirs.

Chapter 2: Religious Policy of Sultans Before Akbar (Pages 10-24) This section provides a historical overview of the religious policies of the sultans preceding Akbar, highlighting a generally intolerant approach:

Introduction of Islam in India: Islam arrived in India through peaceful means in the south and through conquest in the north. The Arab conquest of Sindh opened the path for Islam, with conversions often driven by the exemption from the jaziya tax (levied on non-Muslims) or the burden of the tax itself.
Ghaznavi and Ghauri Dynasties: Mahmud of Ghazni's invasions were driven by religious zeal for jihad and the destruction of "infidelity," though some historians argue plunder was a primary motive. Muhammad Ghori's aim was political, but his campaigns involved significant bloodshed and temple destruction.
Slave Dynasty: Rulers like Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish were devout Sunni Muslims who destroyed Hindu temples and built mosques. They were generally religiously intolerant, with Iltutmish being particularly strict.
Khalji Dynasty: Jalal-ud-din Khalji was a devout Muslim, but Ala-ud-din Khalji prioritized political expediency over strict religious adherence, though he was hostile towards Hindus and aimed to impoverish them.
Tughlaq Dynasty: Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was a strict Sunni. Muhammad bin Tughlaq showed a degree of secularism and appointed Hindus to high positions, but also displayed harshness towards Sunni Muslims. Firoz Shah Tughlaq was a staunch Sunni who promoted Islam and levied jaziya on Brahmins.
Lodi Dynasty: The Lodis generally followed the policies of their predecessors, with Sikandar Lodi being particularly religiously orthodox and intolerant towards Hindus, ordering temple destruction and prohibiting bathing in rivers. Ibrahim Lodi was less severe due to internal rebellions.

Chapter 3: Religious Policy of Akbar's Ancestors (Pages 10, 25-32) This chapter examines the religious policies of Babur and Humayun:

Babur: Though a devout Sunni, Babur was not rigidly sectarian. He encouraged Shias in Samarkand and was known for his faith in God. However, he waged "jihad" against Rana Sanga and built towers of skulls. He exempted Muslims from the tamgha tax but not Hindus and built a mosque on a site revered by Hindus as Ram Janmabhoomi.
Humayun: Like Babur, Humayun was a devout Muslim but tolerant of Shia practices, possibly influenced by his Shia wife Hamida Banu Begum and minister Bairam Khan. He tried to avoid unnecessary persecution of non-Muslims but still destroyed temples in Kalinjar. He was known for his fairness and humanity, though his religious policies were not as liberal as Akbar's.

Chapter 4: Factors Influencing Akbar's Religious Policy (Pages 10, 55-74) This section details the various influences that shaped Akbar's religious policy:

Need for Hindu Support: At the beginning of his reign, facing internal rebellions and external threats, Akbar realized the necessity of gaining the support of the Hindu majority to consolidate his power.
Strengthening the Empire: Akbar understood that India was home to Hindus and that any lasting empire required their cooperation. He believed that subjugating and destroying the native population was unsustainable and that a strong empire needed the goodwill of its people.
Liberal Religious Ideas of Ancestors: Akbar inherited a tradition of religious tolerance from his ancestors, who were influenced by Central Asian and Persian customs. His lineage included figures who, despite their own religious affiliations, did not impose them strictly on others.
Liberal Views of Akbar's Guardian and Tutors: Bairam Khan, a Shia Muslim, was a learned and benevolent guardian. He appointed the liberal scholar Abdul Latif as Akbar's tutor, who instilled in Akbar the principle of Sulh-e-Kul (peace with all).
Marriages with Rajput Princesses: Akbar's marriages with Rajput princesses, such as Harka Bai of Amber, significantly influenced him. He allowed his Rajput wives to practice their Hindu faith within the royal household, fostering Hindu customs and rituals. This led to his own adoption of some Hindu practices, like worshipping the sun and applying tilak.
Akbar's Own Liberal Outlook and Spiritual Experiences: Akbar possessed a natural inclination towards spiritual inquiry and a desire to understand the truth behind various religions. His spiritual experiences and encounters with ascetics and yogis further broadened his perspective.
Influence of the Bhakti Movement and Sufi Ideologies: The prevailing religious atmosphere of the time, influenced by the Bhakti movement and Sufi saints, emphasized religious tolerance, love, and unity. These ideologies resonated with Akbar's own leanings.
Akbar's Quest for Truth: Akbar was deeply curious about the nature of truth and religion. He engaged in discussions with scholars and ascetics, seeking answers to his spiritual questions. This quest led him to question the exclusivity of Islam and explore other faiths.
Interaction with Hindu Officials: Prominent Hindu officials like Raja Bhagwant Das, Man Singh, and Todar Mal played a significant role in shaping Akbar's policies. They advised him on matters of governance and encouraged his liberal approach.
Akbar's Political Ambitions: Akbar's ambition to establish a strong and unified empire required the cooperation of all sections of society. His policy of religious tolerance was a strategic move to consolidate his rule and gain the loyalty of his diverse subjects.
Exposure to the Hypocrisy of Islamic Clergy: Discussions in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) exposed Akbar to the infighting, hypocrisy, and narrow-mindedness of the orthodox Islamic clergy (ulema), leading him to question the true tenets of Islam and seek broader spiritual understanding.
Contact with Scholars of Various Religions: Akbar invited scholars from Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Sikhism to his court, engaging in discussions and learning about their faiths.
The Khutba and Mahzar: Akbar's reading of the Khutba (Friday sermon) in 1579 and the promulgation of the Mahzar (Infallibility Decree) in 1579 asserted his authority as the supreme religious interpreter, diminishing the power of the ulema.

Chapter 5: Development of Religious Policy (Up to 1576) (Pages 10, 75-84) This chapter traces the evolution of Akbar's religious policy before the Khutba and Mahzar:

Early Religious Views (1556-1562): Initially, Akbar adhered strictly to Islamic practices, praying regularly, visiting mosques, and showing great respect to religious scholars. He followed the Sharia in his judgments and was deeply devoted to Sufi saints.
Gradual Evolution: His religious views began to evolve after his coronation. His visits to Ajmer and his association with saints and ascetics started to broaden his spiritual outlook.
Key Policy Changes:
- Marriages with Rajput Princesses (from 1562): This marked a significant shift, leading to the policy of Sulh-e-Kul and the integration of Hindus into the administrative system.
- Spiritual Awakening (around 1562): At the age of twenty, Akbar experienced a spiritual awakening and began to question the meaning of life and religion.
- Prohibition of Enslaving War Captives (1562): This humane decree reflected his growing compassion and sense of justice.
- Abolition of Pilgrim Tax (Tirth Yatra Kar) (1563): He abolished taxes levied on Hindu pilgrims, recognizing the injustice of taxing people for their religious practices.
- Abolition of Jaziya (1564): In a groundbreaking move, Akbar abolished the jaziya tax on non-Muslims, a symbol of religious discrimination, despite opposition from the ulema.
- Freedom to Build Religious Places: He allowed non-Muslims to build their places of worship and offered royal patronage for their construction.

Chapter 6: Contact with Scholars of Various Religions, Khutba, and Mahzar (Pages 10, 95-114) This chapter details Akbar's interactions with scholars from different religions and his assertion of religious authority:

Akbar and Hinduism: Akbar was deeply influenced by Hindu philosophy and customs. He engaged in extensive discussions with saints like Surdas and learned about Hindu deities, rituals, and scriptures from Brahmin scholars like Gautam and Devi. He embraced practices like worshipping the sun, applying tilak, and observing Hindu festivals. He also followed Hindu mourning customs for his mother.
Akbar and Zoroastrianism: Through his association with the Parsi priest Meherji Rana, Akbar adopted Zoroastrian practices, including worshipping fire, lighting sacred fires in the palace, and wearing the sacred sudreh and kusti. He celebrated Parsi festivals and honored their customs.
Akbar and Jainism: Jain scholars like Hiravijaya Suri, Vijayasen Suri, and Bhanuchandra Upadhyay had a profound impact on Akbar. They taught him about Jain principles of non-violence (ahimsa), truth, and asceticism. Their influence led Akbar to ban animal sacrifice, halt hunting for periods, and even temporarily give up meat consumption. He issued decrees supporting Jain pilgrimage sites.
Akbar and Christianity: Akbar invited Jesuit missionaries and engaged in discussions about Christian theology, though he did not convert. He showed respect to Christian figures and allowed them to establish churches and schools.
The Khutba and Mahzar: Akbar's reading of the Khutba and the promulgation of the Mahzar marked a significant assertion of his religious authority, positioning him as the supreme interpreter of Islamic law and reducing the influence of the ulema. The author argues these actions were aimed at asserting his sovereignty rather than claiming divinity.

Chapter 7: Akbar and Din-e-Ilahi (Pages 10, 115-132) This chapter discusses the concept and establishment of Din-e-Ilahi:

Reasons for Din-e-Ilahi's Emergence: The emergence of Din-e-Ilahi was attributed to the liberal intellectual heritage Akbar inherited, the prevailing religious harmony of the time, the need to unify a diverse empire, Akbar's own spiritual quest, his disillusionment with the ulema, and his interactions with scholars of various faiths.
Nature of Din-e-Ilahi: While some historians consider Din-e-Ilahi a new religion, the author argues it was more of a socio-religious order or a spiritual fraternity aimed at promoting universal tolerance and harmony. It synthesized the best tenets from various religions, with emphasis on truth, righteousness, moderation, and Sulh-e-Kul.
Beginning and Principles: Officially launched in 1582, Din-e-Ilahi involved a spiritual initiation where disciples offered their lives, property, honor, and religious knowledge to Akbar. The core principles emphasized generosity, self-control, kindness, good deeds, compassion, forgiveness, detachment from worldly desires, and devotion to God.
Rituals and Rules: Members greeted each other with "Allahu Akbar" (God is Great) and "Jalla Jalaluhu" (His Glory is Infinite). They also practiced prostration before Akbar (a custom derived from Hindu and Muslim traditions). Members abstained from meat on certain days, avoided garlic and onions, and practiced sun and fire worship.
Classification and Membership: Members were classified into four degrees based on their commitment. However, the number of members remained very small, comprising only a handful of loyal courtiers. Even prominent figures like Man Singh and Todar Mal did not formally join.
Failure of Din-e-Ilahi: Din-e-Ilahi failed to gain widespread popularity and faded away after Akbar's death. Its failure is attributed to Akbar's liberal approach, not enforcing it through state power or coercion, and its being ahead of its time in a society still rooted in religious orthodoxy and conflict.

Chapter 8: Criticism and Review of Din-e-Ilahi (Pages 10, 132-136) This chapter discusses criticisms and defenses of Din-e-Ilahi:

Criticisms: Some historians, like Smith and Laurence Binyon, criticized Din-e-Ilahi, viewing it as a product of Akbar's arrogance, political ambition, or a manifestation of religious fanaticism. They argued it pleased no one and led to the persecution of Muslims.
Rebuttals: Modern Indian historians, like S.R. Sharma and A.L. Srivastava, defend Akbar, stating that Din-e-Ilahi was not driven by ego or a desire to establish a new religion or claim prophethood. Instead, it was a genuine attempt to foster religious harmony and political unity in his empire. The author agrees with these modern interpretations, highlighting Akbar's sincerity and his goal of unifying his diverse subjects.

Chapter 9: Accusations of Suppressing Islam (Pages 10, 133-141) This chapter addresses accusations against Akbar for suppressing Islam:

Allegations: Critics, primarily based on the writings of Badauni and Jesuit missionaries, accused Akbar of prohibiting prayers, banning the adhan (call to prayer), forbidding names like Muhammad and Ahmad, allowing the use of silk and ornaments in prayer, abandoning Islamic festivals for Hindu ones, destroying mosques, and promoting pork consumption.
Critique of Allegations: The author refutes these allegations, arguing that Badauni was a sectarian bigot and the Jesuits had their own agendas. Evidence suggests Akbar continued to pray, visited Mecca's shrine, and respected Islamic traditions. The author argues that actions like allowing beards or adopting certain Hindu customs were social and political decisions, not an attack on Islam. The Sijdah (prostration) was a mark of respect for Akbar as a ruler, not divine worship. The author concludes that Akbar remained a Muslim throughout his life.

Chapter 10: Consequences of Akbar's Religious Policy (Pages 10, 142-153) This chapter analyzes the outcomes of Akbar's religious policy:

Establishment of Religious Freedom and Secular State: Akbar moved away from the religiously-oriented state of the Delhi Sultans, fostering religious tolerance and a secular approach to governance. He aimed to unite diverse religious communities through Sulh-e-Kul.
Security of the Empire through Balance: By maintaining religious balance and treating all communities equally, Akbar ensured the security and stability of his vast empire. His policy of impartiality in administration, justice, and charity earned him the loyalty of his subjects.
Improvement in the Condition of Hindus: Akbar abolished discriminatory taxes and social practices affecting Hindus, promoting their social and economic well-being and integrating them into the administration and military.
Environment of Hindu-Muslim Harmony: Akbar's policies fostered an atmosphere of interfaith harmony. Muslims adopted some Hindu customs, and Akbar himself participated in Hindu festivals. This cultural exchange was evident in literature, art, and architecture.
Foundation of a New Empire: Akbar's tolerant policies helped establish a stable Mughal empire, integrating various communities and ensuring their loyalty and support.
Decline of the Power of the Ulema: Akbar's assertion of religious authority and his liberal policies significantly reduced the power and influence of the orthodox Islamic clergy.
Acceptance of Mughal Rule by Hindus: Akbar's equitable treatment and policies led to the willing acceptance of Mughal rule by the Hindu population.
Services of Rajputs to the Mughal Empire: Akbar's diplomatic and matrimonial alliances with Rajput kingdoms secured their lasting loyalty and support, which proved crucial for the empire's stability and expansion for generations.

Bibliography (Pages 154-155) The thesis concludes with a bibliography of the various historical sources consulted, including works by Indian and Western historians.

In essence, Nina Jain's thesis argues that Akbar's religious policy was a monumental shift from the intolerance of his predecessors. Driven by a desire for political stability, intellectual curiosity, and a genuine belief in universal truth, Akbar championed religious tolerance, secular governance, and the integration of diverse communities, laying the foundation for a stronger and more unified Indian empire. While his ultimate project, Din-e-Ilahi, did not succeed as a widespread religion, his policies of tolerance and his quest for spiritual truth profoundly impacted the course of Indian history.