Agam Sahitya Me Yoga Ke Bij - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the Jain text "Agam Sahitya me Yoga ke Bij" by Rakeshmuni, based on the provided pages:

This book, "Agam Sahitya me Yoga ke Bij" (Seeds of Yoga in Agam Literature), by Muni Rakesh Kumar, explores the concept of Yoga as it appears within the Jain Agam literature, arguing that its roots predate the more widely known formulations of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.

The author begins by stating that while the term "Yoga" gained widespread recognition with Patanjali, the underlying practice and its objectives existed in earlier spiritual disciplines and daily life, often referred to by the term "Tapas" (asceticism or austerity). The fundamental principle is the manifestation of the soul's inherent, immense power, leading to liberation from suffering and the attainment of yogic powers (riddhis). This pursuit led practitioners to embrace lives of austerity and hardship, deeming material comforts secondary. The text clarifies that "hardship" in this context is a common term; for those intensely focused on a specific goal, the perception of hardship diminishes as they become immersed in a blissful, goal-oriented state.

The text posits that such austere practices necessitate a detachment from the physical body and liberation from external worldly reactions, essential for the eradication of desires and attachments to sensory pleasures. Historically, even wealthy individuals and rulers have embraced such austere lifestyles.

In the Vedic and Puranic traditions, individuals engaged in severe, austere practices were often called "Avadhutas" (meaning "shaken off" or "trembling"). This term, in ancient literature, is associated with the trembling of sensual desires. An Avadhuta is one who has shaken off desires through a life of penance. The Bhagavad Purana depicts Rishabhadeva as an Avadhuta practitioner.

The Bhagavad Purana, in its fifth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth cantos, details the life of Bharata, famously known as Jadabharata in Vedic-Puranic literature. Bharata, son of Rishabhadeva, was a great ruler who, after entrusting his kingdom to his sons and distributing his ancestral wealth, renounced worldly attachments and devoted himself to Brahma worship. His subsequent life of intense forbearance is described as that of an Avadhuta. The eleventh canto of the Bhagavad Purana also extensively narrates the story of Dattatreya as an Avadhuta.

The author suggests that this era was characterized by a strong emphasis on penance. The rigorous practices of Avadhuta practitioners described in the Bhagavad Purana are mirrored in Buddhist literature, where similar accounts of ascetic lifestyles are found. For instance, in the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha elaborates on his severe ascetic practices before attaining enlightenment to his chief disciple, Sariputta.

The description of Avadhuta practitioners in the Bhagavad Purana bears a striking resemblance to the Buddha's asceticism in the Majjhima Nikaya. The Jain Agamas also contain similar descriptions of ascetic practices. The Acharanga Sutra holds particular significance and is considered the oldest from historical and linguistic perspectives. Its ninth chapter describes the conduct of Lord Mahavir. His rigorous practices are presented as accessible only to those who have completely renounced worldly comforts and desires, for whom the body is secondary, and who are entirely absorbed in the self. Lord Mahavir's conduct, marked by extreme hardship, afflictions, and supreme tolerance, evokes the practices of an Avadhuta.

The sixth chapter of the Acharanga Sutra is the Dhuta Adhyayana (Chapter on the Purified Ascetic). The word "Dhuta" is derived from "Avadhuta" by removing the prefix "ava," possibly due to a linguistic process of abbreviation and simplification. Buddhist texts like Visuddhimagga also describe ascetic practices under the name "Dhutangas."

In the Jain tradition, the practice signified by the term "Tapas" has a long history. Among the nine elements accepted in Jain philosophy, Nirjara (eradication of karmas) is achieved through specific spiritual rituals and penance. Nirjara-tapasya is categorized into twelve types:

Anashana (fasting)
Uno-odari (eating less)
Bhikshachari (alms-begging)
Rasaparityaga (renunciation of delicacies)
Kayaklesha (self-mortification/enduring physical hardship)
Pratisamlinata (concentration/withdrawal of senses)
Prayashchitta (penance/atonement)
Vinaya (humility/respect)
Vaiyavrittya (service)
Dhyana (meditation)
Vyutsarga (renunciation of the body/equanimity)

The first six are considered external tapas (Bahya-tapas), and the last six are internal tapas (Abhyantara-tapas). Among these twelve, Pratisamlinata, Dhyana, and Kayotsarga/Vyutsarga are of great importance from the perspective of Yoga practice.

While the Jain Agam literature does not use the term "Yoga" in the exact same sense as Maharishi Patanjali, it employs it for the activities of mind, speech, and body. Later, meanings such as spiritual practice, mental purification, inner refinement, regulation of mental modifications, and cessation of mental modifications became associated with Yoga in Jainism. However, the Agam literature contains abundant material in its seed form for the self-oriented practice that is referred to as Jain Yoga.

Meditation (Dhyana) holds significant importance among the eight limbs of Yoga, being the seventh limb. The author suggests that if the preceding six limbs and the seventh limb (meditation) are weighed against each other, meditation might hold greater significance. The final, eighth limb is Samadhi, which signifies the ultimate goal of life.

The Jain Agam literature presents numerous instances of meditation. The ninth chapter of the Acharanga Sutra, detailing Lord Mahavir's conduct, also mentions his practices, including various forms of meditation performed with detachment.

One passage describes Lord Mahavir meditating for long periods, fixing his gaze on a sideways wall without blinking. This prolonged, unblinking stare caused his pupils to rise, frightening children who would shout and call others. This context suggests that Lord Mahavir's meditation was connected to the Vataka-paddhati (a method involving fixing the gaze).

Another instance states that even when Lord Mahavir was in populated areas during his wanderings, he meditated without engaging his mind with anyone. If asked, he would not respond and would silently move to another location if pressured, without disturbing his meditation.

It is also mentioned that during his 12.5 years of spiritual practice, Lord Mahavir remained in a state of great contentment, engaged in meditation day and night, with full effort, steadiness, attentiveness, and equanimity.

An account describes Lord Mahavir meditating in a secluded grove. When people asked who was inside, he replied, "I am a monk." Upon hearing this, Lord Mahavir departed, stating that this is the highest dharma of a mendicant. He then resumed his meditation in silence.

The Sutra-kritanga refers to Lord Mahavir as the practitioner of the highest, unparalleled meditation, describing his meditation as supremely pure and bright, like a swan, foam, conch, and the moon.

The Bhagavati Sutra records Lord Mahavir telling Gautama that in his pre-enlightenment state (Chhadmastha), for eleven years as a monk, he practiced intermittent fasts (fasting every two days), refined his soul through penance and self-control, and traveled from village to village. Arriving at Susaumara city, in the Ashoka Grove, he sat near a stone slab under an Ashoka tree, accepted a three-day fast, folded his legs, assumed a seated posture, extended his arms, fixed his gaze on a single point, kept his eyes unblinking, slightly bent his body, and centered his senses. He then accepted a great vow of one night's continuous meditation, a practice he continued during his travels.

These descriptions of Lord Mahavir's asceticism highlight his meditation, postures, and stability. It is clear that his meditation had a specific method, though detailed descriptions are not extensively found in the Jain Agamas.

The author notes that the current state of Jain tradition might differ from that during Lord Mahavir's time. Today, there is a greater emphasis on fasting and long fasts, while mental concentration, control of mental modifications, respect, meditation, and Samadhi have perhaps become somewhat secondary. Consequently, many aspects and methods of meditation have been lost.

Agam literature analyzes meditation in various places, sometimes briefly and sometimes in detail. The Sthanaanga Sutra briefly discusses meditation, categorizing it into four types: Arta (sorrowful), Raudra (fierce), Dharma (righteous), and Shukla (pure). It further elaborates on four sub-types for each, along with their characteristics, objects of focus, and reflections.

The Aupapatika Sutra also describes meditation. The Samavayanga provides brief indications.

In the context of Lord Mahavir's practice, there are mentions of him meditating in various postures. The Aupapatika Sutra, while describing the ascetic lives of Lord Mahavir's disciples, states that some of them entered a state of meditation, seated in a particular posture with their knees raised and heads lowered.

The Aupapatika Sutra, in its discussion of Kaya-klesha (self-mortification), also mentions postures. The seventh chapter of the Dashashrutaskandha Sutra, describing mendicant vows, refers to meditation in various postures.

Later literature connected to the Agamas discusses subjects related to Yoga. The Oghaniyukti Bhashya describes three types of positions or postures: (1) Urdhva-sthana (standing positions), (2) Nishidana-sthana (seated positions), and (3) Shayana-sthana (lying positions). Standing postures are called Urdhva-sthana, with seven variations: ordinary, contemplative, controlled, renounced, balanced feet, single foot, and eagle's posture.

These later references suggest that this practice was once systematically present in the Jain tradition but later became less prevalent. As a result, many of the mentioned postures are not even practically demonstrable today.

The Aupapatika Sutra presents a section on external and internal tapas, with detailed explanations and classifications. It outlines ten types of Prayashchitta (penance), the fifth being Vyutsarga-arha, which refers to penance accomplished through Kayotsarga. This penance is for purification in situations like crossing a river or unavoidable faults during bodily excretions. Kayotsarga involving respiration is prescribed for the purification of various faults. This suggests that the process of breathing (Pranayama), which is part of Yoga, was used in the Jain tradition as needed.

Besides the above, there are other subjects related to tapas like Kayotsarga and Pratisamlinata, elaborated upon in texts like the Aupapatika Sutra. These are significant for the study of Jain Yoga, particularly concerning meditation, concentration (Dharana), and withdrawal of senses (Pratyahara). Thus, the Agam literature is rich with the seeds of Jain Yoga, scattered throughout, requiring significant effort and investigative intellect for their collection.

The text concludes by detailing the four types of meditation:

Arta Dhyana (sorrowful meditation): Four types include separation from the loved, union with the unloved, longing (Nidana), and pain-inflicted.
Raudra Dhyana (fierce meditation): Four types include delight in violence, delight in falsehood, delight in theft, and delight in protecting possessions. Both Arta and Raudra Dhyana are characterized by negative mental states and are causes of worldly existence, essentially referred to as "Ashubhopayoga" (unwholesome contemplation).
Dharma Dhyana (righteous meditation): When a being moves from negative to positive mental states by abandoning unwholesome contemplation, their wholesome contemplation coupled with right faith (Samyakdarshan) is called Dharma Dhyana. It is divided into four types: Adnyavichaya (reflection on scriptures), Apayvichaya (reflection on consequences), Vipakavichaya (reflection on the fruits of actions), and Sansthanavichaya (reflection on the structure of the universe).
Shukla Dhyana (pure meditation): This is contemplation in the form of pure contemplation (Shuddhopayoga). "Shukla" means clean, white, free from any impurity, involving contemplation of a state of Vitaraga (freedom from passions). It is divided into four types: Prithaktvavitarkavichara, Ekatvavitarkavichara, Sukshmakriyapratipatti, and Vyuparata-kriya-nivrutti.

In essence, the book argues that Jain Agam literature provides a foundational understanding and practical elements of what can be considered "Jain Yoga," deeply intertwined with the ascetic practices and profound meditative states described within its scriptures.