Agam Aur Tripitak Ek Anushilan Part 1

This comprehensive summary is based on the provided text and its English title, "Agama aur Tripitak Ek Anushilan Part 1," authored by Nagrajmuni and published by Concept Publishing Company. The book is a critical study of the Jaina and Buddhist canonical literatures, specifically focusing on their history and traditions in the first volume.

Here's a summary of the key themes and findings presented in the provided text, particularly drawing from the foreword, preface, and the table of contents:

Overall Objective and Approach:

• Comparative Study: The core aim of the book is to undertake an exhaustive and comparative study of the Jaina Āgamas (Ganipitaka) and the Buddhist Tripitakas.
• Focus on Common Topics: The author concentrates on areas of shared interest, particularly the lives, times, and doctrines of Mahāvīra and the Buddha, as well as other contemporary religious teachers.
• Scholarly Temper and Objectivity: The study is praised for its scholarly approach, aiming for objectivity, exactitude, and balanced judgment, which is noted as a significant achievement for an adherent of either faith undertaking such a comparative analysis.
• Addressing Controversies: The work tackles scholarly controversies, such as the exact dates of Mahāvīra's and Buddha's nirvana, surveying accessible material and traditions to offer consistent conclusions.

Key Content Areas (Volume 1: History & Tradition):

1. Mahāvīra and Buddha: Contemporaries?

   • The book begins by exploring the question of whether Mahāvīra and Buddha were indeed contemporaries and single individuals, given the striking similarities in their life paths (both were Kshatriya princes, renounced their homes, had wives and children, achieved enlightenment after arduous spiritual pursuits, established monastic orders, and were revered by kings).
   • It acknowledges the scholarly debate on this topic, with some Western scholars initially suggesting they might have been the same person due to apparent doctrinal similarities. However, the author emphasizes that historical evidence clearly establishes them as two distinct individuals.
   • Influence of Jainism on Buddhism: The text delves into the potential influence of Jain practices, such as plucking hair, standing/squatting austerities, nudity, and adhering to the "cātur-yāma" (four vows), on early Buddhism, suggesting Buddha may have had some association with Jain traditions during his ascetic phase.

2. Contemporary Religious Leaders:

   • The book details the lives and doctrines of other significant contemporary ascetics mentioned in both Jaina and Buddhist canons, including Pūraṇa Kāśyapa (Ajivaka), Makkhali Gosāla (Niyativāda), Ajita Keśakambalī (Ucchedavada), Pakudha Kātyāyana (An'yonyavada), Sañjaya Vēlāṭṭhiputta (Vixepavāda), and lastly, Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Mahāvīra) himself.
   • It notes the unfortunate loss of the Ājīvika scriptures, with our knowledge of their doctrines primarily coming from Jaina and Buddhist sources. Muni Nāgarājī provides extensive details on these figures and their tenets.

3. Chronology (Kāla-Nirṇaya):

   • A significant portion is dedicated to resolving the controversial dating of Mahāvīra and Buddha.
   • It surveys various scholarly and traditional views, critically analyzing evidence from Āgamas, Tripitakas, and historical inscriptions.
   • The author, Muni Nāgarājī, posits that Mahāvīra attained nirvana in 527 BCE and Buddha in 502 BCE. This conclusion is presented as internally consistent and supported by surveys of accessible material.
   • The text discusses the challenges of establishing definitive dates due to disparate evidence and scholarly disputes, particularly highlighting the controversy surrounding the Pāvā location for Mahāvīra's nirvana and the differing interpretations of Buddhist texts regarding the relative timelines of Mahāvīra and Buddha.

4. Previous Births (Pūrva Bhava):

   • The book explores the concept of past lives (rebirths) as a shared doctrine in both traditions, with a particular focus on the unique parallels found in the past lives of Mahāvīra and Buddha.
   • The foreknowledge of Mahāvīra's future Tirthankara status by Rishabha and the foreknowledge of Buddha's future Buddhahood by Dipankara Buddha are highlighted as significant, possibly unprecedented, comparisons.

5. Birth and Renunciation (Janma aur Pravrajya):

   • Detailed comparisons of the births and renunciations of Mahāvīra and Buddha are presented, noting similarities like the circumstances surrounding their conception, their birth events, the auspicious dreams of their mothers, and the events that led to their renunciation.
   • The text discusses the potential influence of Jain practices on Buddhist monastic traditions, including the practice of laying down rules for conduct after observing the established practices of other ascetic groups.

6. Exertions for Goal Achievement (Sādhana):

   • This section likely details the spiritual practices, austerities, and the path to enlightenment followed by both Mahāvīra and Buddha, comparing their methods and the challenges they faced.
   • The author highlights the rigorous and often severe nature of the austerities undertaken by Mahāvīra, drawing from Jain Āgamas.

7. Hardships and Forbearance (Pariṣaha aur Titikṣā):

   • This topic focuses on the trials and tribulations endured by Mahāvīra and Buddha during their ascetic periods and spiritual journeys.
   • The text draws parallels between the "Chanda-Kaushika-Udbodhana" (taming of the snake) in Mahāvīra's life and the "Chanda-Naga-Vijaya" (subduing of the snake) in Buddha's life, suggesting similarities in the overcoming of formidable obstacles.
   • The concept of enduring hardships (Pariṣaha) is a significant aspect of Jain spiritual practice, and comparisons are made with the Buddhist concept of forbearance.

8. Omniscience and Enlightenment (Kaivalya aur Bodhi):

   • This section compares the attainment of supreme knowledge (Kevala Jnana in Jainism) and enlightenment (Bodhi in Buddhism).
   • It examines the nature of their enlightenment and the extent of their knowledge.

9. Establishment and Expansion of Monastic Orders (Bhikṣu-saṅgha aur uska vistār):

   • The author discusses the establishment and growth of the Jaina monastic order (Sangha) initiated by Mahāvīra and the Buddhist Sangha initiated by Buddha.
   • This includes details about the initial disciples, the rules and regulations, and the process of expansion.
   • The text notes the significant number of disciples and followers who joined both traditions, often coming from Brahmanical backgrounds, ascetics, and royal families.
   • Comparison of Ordination: The differences in their ordination processes and the structure of their respective monastic orders are likely explored.

10. Disciple-Monks and Nuns (Pāri pārśvika bhikṣu bhikṣuṇiyā):

    • This part focuses on the prominent disciples of both Mahāvīra and Buddha, comparing their biographies, spiritual achievements, and roles in propagating their respective faiths.
    • Key figures like Gautama Swami (Indrabhūti) for Mahāvīra and Sariputta, Maudgalyāyana, Ānanda, Upāli for Buddha are likely discussed.
    • The text likely highlights the special characteristics of disciples, such as those who attained omniscience (Kevali), those with specific spiritual powers (Riddhi), and those who excelled in particular disciplines.

11. Chief Lay-Followers (Pramukh Upāsak Upāsikāeṁ):

    • The study examines the important lay patrons and followers of both Mahāvīra and Buddha.
    • Figures like Śreṇika Bimbisāra, Ajātaśatru, Udayin, Chanda Pradyota, and Chetaka are discussed in relation to their patronage of Jainism and Buddhism.
    • The text likely compares the support and influence provided by royal families to both religions.

12. Defiant Disciples (Virōdhī śiṣya):

    • This section addresses the instances of schism and dissent within both monastic communities.
    • Key figures like Jamali (Mahāvīra's son-in-law) and Devadatta (Buddha's cousin and rival) are discussed, focusing on their opposition to the founders and the reasons for their dissent.
    • The text likely compares the nature of these schisms and the responses of Mahāvīra and Buddha to them.

13. Royal Followers (Anuyāyī rājā):

    • A detailed analysis of kings who were followers or patrons of Jainism and Buddhism is presented.
    • Rulers like Śreṇika Bimbisāra, Ajātaśatru (Kūṇika), Abhayakumāra, Udāyana, Chanda Pradyota, and Prasēnajit are examined.
    • The author likely discusses the complex relationships between these rulers and the respective religious traditions, often noting conflicting claims by both Jain and Buddhist sources about a king's primary allegiance.

14. Parinirvāṇa (Emancipation):

    • This section compares the final moments and demise of Mahāvīra and Buddha.
    • It discusses the locations (Pāvā for Mahāvīra, Kuśinārā for Buddha) and the traditional accounts surrounding their passing.
    • The text likely explores the events leading up to their deaths, their final teachings, and the immediate aftermath, including the disposition of their relics.

15. Tours and Halts of Rainy Season (Vihār aur Varṣāvās):

    • The book provides a comparative analysis of the travel routes and specific locations where Mahāvīra and Buddha spent their annual rainy seasons (Vassa).
    • This section likely offers insights into their missionary activities and geographical spheres of influence.

16. Niggantha and Niggantha Nātaputta (Mahāvīra) in Tripitakas (Tripitakon mein Nigaṇṭha va Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta):

    • This is a crucial chapter that meticulously collects and analyzes all mentions of Mahāvīra and the Jaina tradition found within the Buddhist Tipitakas.
    • It highlights how the Buddhist canon often presents these mentions from a critical or contrasting perspective, aiming to establish the superiority of Buddhist doctrines.
    • The author likely examines specific dialogues, debates, and narratives where Mahāvīra or Jain practices are discussed, evaluating their historical accuracy and potential biases. The text lists 51 such references, significantly more than previous scholarly attempts.

17. Code and Books of Discipline (Āchāra-Grantha aur Āchār-Saṁhitā):

    • This final chapter of Volume 1 compares the Jaina Nīśītha Sūtra (a text on monastic discipline) with the Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka.
    • It likely examines similarities in their monastic rules, codes of conduct, and disciplinary measures, as well as differences in their historical development and textual traditions.

Significance of the Work:

• First Comprehensive Comparative Study: Dr. W. Norman Brown's preface highlights that this appears to be the first attempt by an adherent of either faith to compare Jainism and Buddhism in such a thorough manner.
• Vast New Scholarship: The study is expected to contain a vast amount of new and independent scholarship.
• Objectivity and Balance: The author's approach promises objectivity and balanced judgment, making the work a valuable resource for understanding these two ancient Indian religions.
• Repository of Information: The work is described as a veritable repository of useful information on Mahāvīra, Buddha, their times, and their doctrines.
• Editorial Support: The contributions of the editors, Muni Shri Mahendra Kumarji 'Pratham' and 'Dviteeya,' are acknowledged for revising and augmenting the second edition.

Overall Impression:

"Āgama aur Tripitaka: Eka Anuśīlana" (Volume 1) by Muni Nāgarājī is presented as a monumental work of comparative religious studies, offering detailed historical and traditional analysis of Jainism and Buddhism, with a particular emphasis on uncovering the nuanced relationship and historical interactions between these two traditions. The book is highly regarded for its depth, breadth, and scholarly rigor.